J. Mater. Sci. Technol. ›› 2022, Vol. 119: 219-244.DOI: 10.1016/j.jmst.2021.11.063
• Review Article • Previous Articles Next Articles
Jiahui Lia, Yvonne Durandeta, Xiaodong Huanga, Guangyong Sunb, Dong Ruana,*(
)
Received:2021-06-10
Revised:2021-10-16
Accepted:2021-11-07
Published:2022-08-20
Online:2022-03-02
Contact:
Dong Ruan
About author:* E-mail address: druan@swin.edu.au (D. Ruan).Jiahui Li, Yvonne Durandet, Xiaodong Huang, Guangyong Sun, Dong Ruan. Additively manufactured fiber-reinforced composites: A review of mechanical behavior and opportunities[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2022, 119: 219-244.
| Fibers type | FDM | DIW | SLS | SLA |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nanofibers: diameter much less than 1 μm | ||||
| xGnPs | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| CNFs | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| MWCNTs | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Carbon black | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| SiO2 nanoparticles | ✓ | |||
| Micro-fibers: diameter larger than 1 μm and length within 50 to 400 μm | ||||
| CF, GF and KF | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| SiC whiskers | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Natural fibers | ✓ | |||
| Milli-fibers: longer than 400 μm | ||||
| CF and GF | ✓ | |||
Table 1. Different types of reinforcing fibers used in various AM techniques.
| Fibers type | FDM | DIW | SLS | SLA |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nanofibers: diameter much less than 1 μm | ||||
| xGnPs | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| CNFs | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| MWCNTs | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Carbon black | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| SiO2 nanoparticles | ✓ | |||
| Micro-fibers: diameter larger than 1 μm and length within 50 to 400 μm | ||||
| CF, GF and KF | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| SiC whiskers | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Natural fibers | ✓ | |||
| Milli-fibers: longer than 400 μm | ||||
| CF and GF | ✓ | |||
Fig. 1. Schematic of (a) a typical FDM process [4]; (b) cross-sectional view of deposited fiber filaments.
| Fiber type | Young's modulus(GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Specific strength(kN m/kg) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon fiber | 120 - 180 | 1600 - 4127 | 2457 - 3919 |
| Glass fiber | 30 - 40 | 1500 - 3450 | 1307 - 3300 |
Table 2. Mechanical properties of carbon and glass fibers (data from [39]).
| Fiber type | Young's modulus(GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Specific strength(kN m/kg) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon fiber | 120 - 180 | 1600 - 4127 | 2457 - 3919 |
| Glass fiber | 30 - 40 | 1500 - 3450 | 1307 - 3300 |
Fig. 2. Tensile properties of FDM-fabricated 20 wt.% CF/ABS and GF/ABS FRCs (data from [25,26,40]).
Fig. 3. Effect of fiber weight percentage on the tensile properties of FDM-fabricated CF/PA12 (data from [30]).
Fig. 4. Effect of fiber weight percentage on the tensile strength of FDM-fabricated CF/PEEK and GF/PEEK (data from [31]).
Fig. 5. SEM images of the fracture surfaces of AM-fabricated CF/PEEK with varied fiber weight percentage (a1) fracture surface of 5 wt.% CF/PEEK; (a2) enlargement of the area with pores; (b1) fracture surface of 10 wt.% CF/PEEK; (b2) enlargement of layer boundary; (c1) fracture surface of 15 wt.% CF/PEEK showing interlayer gaps; (c2) enlargement of pores inside filament [31].
Fig. 6. Mechanical properties of FRCs fabricated using modified FDM processes at elevated temperatures: (a) tensile modulus; (b) tensile strength (data from [29,34]).
Fig. 7. Fracture interfaces of FDM-fabricated CF/ABS specimens printed at nozzle temperature of: (a) 210 °C; (b) 220 °C; (c) 230 °C [38].
Fig. 8. SEM photographs of (a) untreated fibers; (b) nitrogen treated fibers; (c) fracture surface of untreated CF/B50; (d) fracture surface of treated CF/B50 [43].
Fig. 9. SEM images of the cross-sectional surfaces of SLS-fabricated FRCs: (a) CF/PA12 parts as fabricated right after SLS process; (b) CF/PA12/EP ternary composite [60].
Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of SLA process to fabricate discontinuous FRCs: (a) initial stage of typical SLA printer; (b) raised platform with cured composites.
Fig. 11. SEM images of the cross sections of SLA-fabricated specimens: (a) top layer of the cross section of a glass powder specimen; (b) bottom layer of the cross section of a glass powder specimen; (c) top layer of the cross section of a short glass fiber specimen; (d) bottom layer of the cross section of a short glass fiber specimen [62].
Fig. 12. Tensile strength vs. tensile modulus of materials manufactured via various AM techniques and traditional injection molding (data from [[69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75], [76], [77], [78]).
Fig. 13. FDM printing process to fabricate continuous FRCs: (a) coaxial extrusion using a single nozzle [94]; (b) dual extrusion using two nozzles [95].
Fig. 14. Tensile and flexural strengths of FDM-fabricated 40% Vf fiber-reinforced PA composites (data from [77]).
Fig. 15. SEM micrographs of AM-fabricated continuous FRCs: (a) fiber-matrix interface of CF/PLA; (b) fiber pull-out phenomenon of CF/PA after a tensile test; (c) fiber-matrix interface of modified CF/PLA and (d) fiber pull-out of modified CF/PLA after a tensile test [91].
Fig. 16. The effect of fiber volume fraction on the tensile properties of CF/PA (data from [89,90,93]).
| Materials(30% Vf CF/Onyx) | Stacking sequence | Tensile modulus(GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4CF-centered |  | 25 | 317 |
| 4CF-separated |  | 25 | 342 |
| 6CF-centered |  | 36 | 451 |
| 6CF-separated |  | 39 | 516 |
Table 3. Tensile modulus and strength of FDM-fabricated FRCs with different configurations of CF layers (blue color) and matrix layers (orange color) (data from [96]).
| Materials(30% Vf CF/Onyx) | Stacking sequence | Tensile modulus(GPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4CF-centered | | 25 | 317 |
| 4CF-separated | | 25 | 342 |
| 6CF-centered | | 36 | 451 |
| 6CF-separated | | 39 | 516 |
Fig. 17. SEM images of the tensile fracture surfaces of (a) FRCs with 4CF-centered; (b) FRCs with 4CF-seperated showing interfaces (S-S) between printed matrix lines [96].
Fig. 18. A sketch of the developed printer head with a compaction roller [110].
Fig. 19. Schematic of a LOM process to fabricate CF/PEEK [130].
Fig. 20 (a) Tensile strength vs. tensile modulus of AM-fabricated continuous FRCs; (b) tensile strength vs. fiber volume fraction of different AM-fabricated continuous FRCs (data from [[88], [89], [90], [91], [92], [93],96,99,105,106,[108], [109], [110], [111], [112],115,130,133,[136], [137], [138], [139], [140], [141]). (b) shows the tensile strength versus fiber volume fraction of continuous FRCs fabricated by different AM techniques. Major observations are as follows.
| Application | Material | Materials | Industry(Company) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Footbridge [ |  | Continuous GF reinforced thermoplastic (Recycled matrix material) | Infrastructure and Construction (Composite Additive Manufacturing) |
| Bicycle frames [ |  | Continuous CF reinforced thermoplastic | Sport (Arevo) |
| Helicopter blades mold [ |  | Carbon nanofiber reinforced PESU (Autoclave processable matrix material) | Additive Manufacturing (Thermwood) |
| Tools for vehicle maintenance [ |  | Continuous CF reinforced Onyx | Automotive (Dayco) |
| Unmanned aerial vehicle [ |  | Continuous CF reinforced thermoplastic with thermoset wrapping | Additive Manufacturing (Anisoprint) |
| Coordinate measurement machine (CMM) fixtures [ |  | Discontinuous CF reinforced PA | Aerospace (JJ Churchill Ltd.) |
| Molds and prototypes [ |  | Continuous GF reinforced Onyx | Electrical Engineering (Fischer Connectors) |
| Robotic arm [ |  | Continuous CF reinforced PA | Artificial Intelligence(Haddington Dynamics) |
Table 4. Applications of AM-fabricated fiber reinforced composites.
| Application | Material | Materials | Industry(Company) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Footbridge [ | | Continuous GF reinforced thermoplastic (Recycled matrix material) | Infrastructure and Construction (Composite Additive Manufacturing) |
| Bicycle frames [ | | Continuous CF reinforced thermoplastic | Sport (Arevo) |
| Helicopter blades mold [ | | Carbon nanofiber reinforced PESU (Autoclave processable matrix material) | Additive Manufacturing (Thermwood) |
| Tools for vehicle maintenance [ | | Continuous CF reinforced Onyx | Automotive (Dayco) |
| Unmanned aerial vehicle [ | | Continuous CF reinforced thermoplastic with thermoset wrapping | Additive Manufacturing (Anisoprint) |
| Coordinate measurement machine (CMM) fixtures [ | | Discontinuous CF reinforced PA | Aerospace (JJ Churchill Ltd.) |
| Molds and prototypes [ | | Continuous GF reinforced Onyx | Electrical Engineering (Fischer Connectors) |
| Robotic arm [ | | Continuous CF reinforced PA | Artificial Intelligence(Haddington Dynamics) |
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT(MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EF(GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| 2 wt.% CF/PA12 | 1.5 ± 0.13 | 54 ± 1.5 | 1.8 | 3 | ||
| 4 wt.% CF/PA12 | 2.0 ± 0.06 | 59 ± 3.7 | 2.6 | 71 | ||
| 6 wt.% CF/PA12 | 2.8 ± 0.11 | 78 ± 2.1 | 4.2 | 96 | [ | |
| 8 wt.% CF/PA12 | 3.4 ± 0.15 | 88 ± 6.4 | 4.5 | 108 | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PA12 | 3.6 ± 0.24 | 94 ± 1.4 | 5.3 | 125 | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/PA6 | 6.2 | 52 | EC(GPa) 3.9 | σC (MPa) 56 | [ | |
| Onyx (CF/PA6) | 2.4 | 40 | EF(GPa) 3.1 | σF(MPa) 71 | [ | |
| Onyx (CF/PA6) | 1.4 | 30 | EF(GPa) 2.9 | σF (MPa) 81 | [ | |
| 6 wt.% CF/PA | - | - | G (GPa) 0.3 | σS(MPa) 19 | [ | |
| EF (GPa) | σF(MPa) | |||||
| 6 wt.% CF/PA6 | 1.9 | 34 | 3.0 | 55 | [ | |
| 17 wt.% CF/PA6 | 4.6 | 84 | 7.5 | 138 | ||
| 12 wt.% CF/PA6 T= 200 °C HDPF | 17.5 ± 2.5 | 250 ± 15.0 | - | - | ||
| 12 wt.% CF/PA6 T= 260 °C HPDF | 17.5 ± 1.5 | 200 ± 5.0 | - | - | ||
| FDM | 12 wt.% CF/PLA T= 170 °C HPDF | 20.5 ± 3.1 | 220 ± 3.0 | - | - | [ |
| 12 wt.% CF/PLA T= 210 °C HPDF | 24.5 ± 2.5 | 300 ± 80 | - | - | [ | |
| 12 wt.% CF/ABS T= 177 °C HPDF | 13.5 ± 2.5 | 90 ± 10.0 | - | - | ||
| 12 wt.% CF/ABS T= 260 °C HPDF | 25.0 ± 1.5 | 320 ± 19.1 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/ABS (longitudinal) | 11.9 | 66 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/ABS (transverse) | 2.1 | 10 | - | - | [ | |
| 20 wt.% GF/ABS | 5.7 | 54 | - | - | ||
| 40 wt.% GF/ABS | 10.8 | 51 | - | - | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS (longitudinal) | 8.9 | 71 | - | - | [ | |
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS (transverse) | 1.5 | 7 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/ABS | 7.7 | 52 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/ABS | 11.5 ± 0.5 | 60 ± 1.0 | - | - | ||
| 30 wt.% CF/ABS | 13.8 | 62 | - | - | [ | |
| 40 wt.% CF/ABS | 13.7 | 67 | - | - | ||
| 3 wt.% CF/ABS | 2.1 | 40 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS 100μm fiber | 1.2 | 39 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS 150μm fiber | 2.4 | 43 | EF(GPa) 2.9 | σF (MPa) 67 | [ | |
| 7.5 wt.% CF/ABS | 2.5 | 43 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/ABS | 2.2 | 34 | - | - | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS | 2.3 | 36 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=200 °C | 0.68 | 23 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=210 °C | 0.75 | 25 | - | - | [ | |
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=220 °C | 0.89 | 32 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=230 °C | 0.68 | 22 | - | - | [ | |
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=240 °C | 0.65 | 18 | - | - | ||
| FDM | 15 wt.% CF/ABS 0° Raster | 5.9 | 39 | - | - | [ |
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS -45°/45° Raster | 2.8 | 29 | - | - | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS 90° Raster | 2.2 | 14 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/ABS | 8.4 | 67 | - | - | [ | |
| 4 wt.% xGnP/ABS | 2.6 | 36 | - | - | ||
| 8 wt.% xGnP/ABS | 3.5 | 38 | - | - | [ | |
| 15 wt.% CF/PLA (longitudinal) | 7.5 | 53 | - | - | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/PLA (transverse) | 3.9 | 35 | - | - | [ | |
| EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| 5 wt.% CF/PEEK | - | 94 ± 2.0 | - | 156 ± 4.5 | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK | - | 85 ± 3.5 | - | 151± 3.1 | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/PEEK | 4.0 (calculated) | 83 ± 1.3 | - | 147 ± 2.2 | [ | |
| 5 wt.% GF/PEEK | - | 94 ± 3.0 | - | 165 ± 3.0 | ||
| 10 wt.% GF/PEEK | - | 83 ± 3.9 | - | 152 ± 4.2 | ||
| 15 wt.% GF/PEEK | - | 79 ± 2.3 | - | 151 ± 1.6 | ||
| EF(GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| 3.5% Vf KF/EPON826 | - | - | 3.8 | 78 | ||
| DIW | 6.3% Vf KF/EPON826 | - | - | 4.2 | 108 | [ |
| B33 Photocurable (33 wt.% Ar/PA) | 2.6 | 35 | - | - | ||
| B50 Photocurable (50 wt.% Ar/PA) | 2.7 | 16 | - | - | [ | |
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
| GF/B33 | 3.5 | 42 | - | - | ||
| DIW | CF/B50 | 3.9 | 31 | - | - | [ |
| CF/B50 (with sizing) | 4.4 | 34 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - x direction | 6.3 | 67 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - y direction | 3.6 | 54 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - xy direction | 4.1 | 57 | - | - | [ | |
| CF/PA12 - x 45° | 2.4 | 31 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - y 45° | 2.1 | 32 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - xy 45° | 2.1 | 31 | - | - | ||
| EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| 30wt.% CF/PA12 | - | - | 2.7 | 76 | ||
| 40wt.% CF/PA12 | - | - | 3.2 | 97 | [ | |
| 50wt.% CF/PA12 | - | - | 4.7 | 113 | ||
| 3 wt.% CNFs/PA12 | - | - | E′ (GPa) 1.2 | [ | ||
| EF(GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| SLS | 30 wt.% CF/PA12 | 5.5 | 72 | 5.3 | 106 | [ |
| 30 wt.% CF/PA12 HNO3 and heat | 5.8 | 80 | 5.9 | 114 | ||
| CF/PA12/Epoxy | - | 101 | σF(MPa) 153 | [ | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK | 2.8 | 89 | - | - | [ | |
| EF (GPa) | σF(MPa) | |||||
| 5 wt.% CF/PEEK | 7.4 | 90 | 6.1 | 183 | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK | 7.5 | 109 | 5.2 | 170 | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/PEEK | 7.3 | 70 | 6.1 | 150 | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/PEEK | 6 | 50 | 4.9 | 80 | [ | |
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK Thickness=0.1mm | 7.4 | 109 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK Thickness=0.15mm | 5.5 | 50 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK Thickness=0.2mm | 4.1 | 40 | - | - | [ | |
| 0.5 wt.% CNCs/SLR | 3.4 | 74 | - | - | ||
| 1 wt.% CNCs /SLR | 3.6 | 77 | - | - | [ | |
| 2 wt.% CNCs /SLR | 3.9 | 82 | - | - | ||
| 1 wt.% SiO2 /SLR | 1.7 | 46 | - | - | ||
| SLA | 3 wt.% SiO2/SLR | 2.0 | 50 | - | - | [ |
| 5 wt.% SiO2/SLR | 2.7 | 54 | - | - | ||
| 0.1 wt.% GO/Grey resin | - | 45 | - | - | [ | |
| 0.5 wt.% GO/Grey resin | - | 55 | - | - | ||
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
| 1 wt.% GO/Grey resin | - | 60 | - | - | [ | |
| 10 wt.% GF/LCR | 0.2 | 15 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% GF/LCR | 0.2 | 16 | - | - | ||
| SLA | 30 wt.% GF/LCR | 0.4 | 17 | - | - | [ |
| 40 wt.% GF/LCR | 0.5 | 20 | - | - | ||
| 50 wt.% GF/LCR | 1.0 | 22 | - | - | ||
| 7% Vf GF/Ar | - | 27 | - | - | [ | |
Table A1. Summary of mechanical properties for AM-fabricated discontinuous fiber-reinforced composites (ET: Tensile modulus, σT: Tensile strength, EC: Compressive modulus, σC: Compressive strength, EF: Flexural modulus, σF: Flexural strength, G: Shear modulus, σS: Shear strength, E′: Storage modulus, KV: Charpy V-notch, ε: Strain).
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT(MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EF(GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| 2 wt.% CF/PA12 | 1.5 ± 0.13 | 54 ± 1.5 | 1.8 | 3 | ||
| 4 wt.% CF/PA12 | 2.0 ± 0.06 | 59 ± 3.7 | 2.6 | 71 | ||
| 6 wt.% CF/PA12 | 2.8 ± 0.11 | 78 ± 2.1 | 4.2 | 96 | [ | |
| 8 wt.% CF/PA12 | 3.4 ± 0.15 | 88 ± 6.4 | 4.5 | 108 | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PA12 | 3.6 ± 0.24 | 94 ± 1.4 | 5.3 | 125 | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/PA6 | 6.2 | 52 | EC(GPa) 3.9 | σC (MPa) 56 | [ | |
| Onyx (CF/PA6) | 2.4 | 40 | EF(GPa) 3.1 | σF(MPa) 71 | [ | |
| Onyx (CF/PA6) | 1.4 | 30 | EF(GPa) 2.9 | σF (MPa) 81 | [ | |
| 6 wt.% CF/PA | - | - | G (GPa) 0.3 | σS(MPa) 19 | [ | |
| EF (GPa) | σF(MPa) | |||||
| 6 wt.% CF/PA6 | 1.9 | 34 | 3.0 | 55 | [ | |
| 17 wt.% CF/PA6 | 4.6 | 84 | 7.5 | 138 | ||
| 12 wt.% CF/PA6 T= 200 °C HDPF | 17.5 ± 2.5 | 250 ± 15.0 | - | - | ||
| 12 wt.% CF/PA6 T= 260 °C HPDF | 17.5 ± 1.5 | 200 ± 5.0 | - | - | ||
| FDM | 12 wt.% CF/PLA T= 170 °C HPDF | 20.5 ± 3.1 | 220 ± 3.0 | - | - | [ |
| 12 wt.% CF/PLA T= 210 °C HPDF | 24.5 ± 2.5 | 300 ± 80 | - | - | [ | |
| 12 wt.% CF/ABS T= 177 °C HPDF | 13.5 ± 2.5 | 90 ± 10.0 | - | - | ||
| 12 wt.% CF/ABS T= 260 °C HPDF | 25.0 ± 1.5 | 320 ± 19.1 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/ABS (longitudinal) | 11.9 | 66 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/ABS (transverse) | 2.1 | 10 | - | - | [ | |
| 20 wt.% GF/ABS | 5.7 | 54 | - | - | ||
| 40 wt.% GF/ABS | 10.8 | 51 | - | - | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS (longitudinal) | 8.9 | 71 | - | - | [ | |
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS (transverse) | 1.5 | 7 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/ABS | 7.7 | 52 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/ABS | 11.5 ± 0.5 | 60 ± 1.0 | - | - | ||
| 30 wt.% CF/ABS | 13.8 | 62 | - | - | [ | |
| 40 wt.% CF/ABS | 13.7 | 67 | - | - | ||
| 3 wt.% CF/ABS | 2.1 | 40 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS 100μm fiber | 1.2 | 39 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS 150μm fiber | 2.4 | 43 | EF(GPa) 2.9 | σF (MPa) 67 | [ | |
| 7.5 wt.% CF/ABS | 2.5 | 43 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/ABS | 2.2 | 34 | - | - | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS | 2.3 | 36 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=200 °C | 0.68 | 23 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=210 °C | 0.75 | 25 | - | - | [ | |
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=220 °C | 0.89 | 32 | - | - | ||
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=230 °C | 0.68 | 22 | - | - | [ | |
| 5 wt.% CF/ABS T=240 °C | 0.65 | 18 | - | - | ||
| FDM | 15 wt.% CF/ABS 0° Raster | 5.9 | 39 | - | - | [ |
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS -45°/45° Raster | 2.8 | 29 | - | - | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/ABS 90° Raster | 2.2 | 14 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/ABS | 8.4 | 67 | - | - | [ | |
| 4 wt.% xGnP/ABS | 2.6 | 36 | - | - | ||
| 8 wt.% xGnP/ABS | 3.5 | 38 | - | - | [ | |
| 15 wt.% CF/PLA (longitudinal) | 7.5 | 53 | - | - | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/PLA (transverse) | 3.9 | 35 | - | - | [ | |
| EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| 5 wt.% CF/PEEK | - | 94 ± 2.0 | - | 156 ± 4.5 | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK | - | 85 ± 3.5 | - | 151± 3.1 | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/PEEK | 4.0 (calculated) | 83 ± 1.3 | - | 147 ± 2.2 | [ | |
| 5 wt.% GF/PEEK | - | 94 ± 3.0 | - | 165 ± 3.0 | ||
| 10 wt.% GF/PEEK | - | 83 ± 3.9 | - | 152 ± 4.2 | ||
| 15 wt.% GF/PEEK | - | 79 ± 2.3 | - | 151 ± 1.6 | ||
| EF(GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| 3.5% Vf KF/EPON826 | - | - | 3.8 | 78 | ||
| DIW | 6.3% Vf KF/EPON826 | - | - | 4.2 | 108 | [ |
| B33 Photocurable (33 wt.% Ar/PA) | 2.6 | 35 | - | - | ||
| B50 Photocurable (50 wt.% Ar/PA) | 2.7 | 16 | - | - | [ | |
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
| GF/B33 | 3.5 | 42 | - | - | ||
| DIW | CF/B50 | 3.9 | 31 | - | - | [ |
| CF/B50 (with sizing) | 4.4 | 34 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - x direction | 6.3 | 67 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - y direction | 3.6 | 54 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - xy direction | 4.1 | 57 | - | - | [ | |
| CF/PA12 - x 45° | 2.4 | 31 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - y 45° | 2.1 | 32 | - | - | ||
| CF/PA12 - xy 45° | 2.1 | 31 | - | - | ||
| EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| 30wt.% CF/PA12 | - | - | 2.7 | 76 | ||
| 40wt.% CF/PA12 | - | - | 3.2 | 97 | [ | |
| 50wt.% CF/PA12 | - | - | 4.7 | 113 | ||
| 3 wt.% CNFs/PA12 | - | - | E′ (GPa) 1.2 | [ | ||
| EF(GPa) | σF (MPa) | |||||
| SLS | 30 wt.% CF/PA12 | 5.5 | 72 | 5.3 | 106 | [ |
| 30 wt.% CF/PA12 HNO3 and heat | 5.8 | 80 | 5.9 | 114 | ||
| CF/PA12/Epoxy | - | 101 | σF(MPa) 153 | [ | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK | 2.8 | 89 | - | - | [ | |
| EF (GPa) | σF(MPa) | |||||
| 5 wt.% CF/PEEK | 7.4 | 90 | 6.1 | 183 | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK | 7.5 | 109 | 5.2 | 170 | ||
| 15 wt.% CF/PEEK | 7.3 | 70 | 6.1 | 150 | ||
| 20 wt.% CF/PEEK | 6 | 50 | 4.9 | 80 | [ | |
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK Thickness=0.1mm | 7.4 | 109 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK Thickness=0.15mm | 5.5 | 50 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt.% CF/PEEK Thickness=0.2mm | 4.1 | 40 | - | - | [ | |
| 0.5 wt.% CNCs/SLR | 3.4 | 74 | - | - | ||
| 1 wt.% CNCs /SLR | 3.6 | 77 | - | - | [ | |
| 2 wt.% CNCs /SLR | 3.9 | 82 | - | - | ||
| 1 wt.% SiO2 /SLR | 1.7 | 46 | - | - | ||
| SLA | 3 wt.% SiO2/SLR | 2.0 | 50 | - | - | [ |
| 5 wt.% SiO2/SLR | 2.7 | 54 | - | - | ||
| 0.1 wt.% GO/Grey resin | - | 45 | - | - | [ | |
| 0.5 wt.% GO/Grey resin | - | 55 | - | - | ||
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
| 1 wt.% GO/Grey resin | - | 60 | - | - | [ | |
| 10 wt.% GF/LCR | 0.2 | 15 | - | - | ||
| 20 wt.% GF/LCR | 0.2 | 16 | - | - | ||
| SLA | 30 wt.% GF/LCR | 0.4 | 17 | - | - | [ |
| 40 wt.% GF/LCR | 0.5 | 20 | - | - | ||
| 50 wt.% GF/LCR | 1.0 | 22 | - | - | ||
| 7% Vf GF/Ar | - | 27 | - | - | [ | |
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 27% Vf CF/PA | 62.5 | 968 | 41.6 | 485 | G (GPa) 2.3 | σS(MPa) 31 | [ | |
| EC (GPa) | σC (MPa) | |||||||
| 40% Vf CF/PA | 60 | 800 | 51 | 540 | 54 | 320 | ||
| 40% Vf GF/PA | 21 | 590 | 22 | 200 | 21 | 140 | [ | |
| 40% Vf KF/PA | 27 | 610 | 26 | 240 | 28 | 97 | ||
| CF filaments (PA6 as sizing agent) | 61.0 | 767 | 35.8 | 546 | - | - | [ | |
| CF with compression | 83.2 | 940 | 57.3 | 1052 | - | - | ||
| 41% Vf CF/PA | 13 | 600 | 38 | 430 | - | - | [ | |
| 35% Vf GF/PA | 7 | 450 | 15 | 149 | - | - | ||
| FDM | 6% Vf CF/PA | 14 | 140 | - | - | - | - | [ |
| 18% Vf CF/PA | 36 | 464 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 11% Vf CF/PA | 7.7 | 216 | 13.0 | 250 | - | - | [ | |
| 8% Vf GF/PA | 3.1 | 194 | 3.9 | 166 | - | - | ||
| 10% Vf GF/PA | 3.8 | 206 | 4.2 | 197 | - | - | ||
| 8% Vf KF/PA | 3.6 | 150 | 4.6 | 107 | - | - | ||
| 10% Vf KF/PA | 4.4 | 164 | 6.7 | 126 | - | - | ||
| 4% Vf KF/PA | 1.8 | 31 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 8% Vf KF/PA | 6.9 | 60 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 10% Vf KF/PA | 9.0 | 84 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 35% Vf CF/PA | 71.2 | 777 | 52 | 583 | - | - | [ | |
| 35% Vf CF/PA_3DCP With compaction | 71.2 | 1031 | 66 | 945 | - | - | ||
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
| EC (GPa) | σC (MPa) | |||||||
| 41% Vf CF/PA | 68 | 701 | - | - | 53 | 223 | [ | |
| 50% Vf GF/PA | 26 | 575 | - | - | 20 | 82 | ||
| EC (GPa) | σC(MPa) | |||||||
| 8.18% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 1.5 | 40 | ||
| 16.59% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 1.9 | 43 | ||
| 17.18% Vf CF/PA | - | - | 5.2 | 84 | - | - | [ | |
| 24.44% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 2.1 | 53 | ||
| 32.19% Vf CF/PA | - | - | 8.9 | 143 | - | - | ||
| 48.93% Vf CF/PA | - | - | 14.2 | 231 | - | - | ||
| σS (MPa) | ||||||||
| 27.2% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 22.2 | |||
| 27.2% Vf GF/PA | - | - | - | - | 13.9 | |||
| FDM | 27.2% Vf KF/PA | - | - | - | - | 13.7 | [ | |
| 73.2% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 31.9 | |||
| 73.2% Vf GF/PA | - | - | - | - | 21.0 | |||
| 73.2% Vf KF/PA | - | - | - | - | 14.3 | |||
| KV(kJ/m2) | ||||||||
| 24.9% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 33 | |||
| 29.2% Vf GF/PA | - | - | - | - | 207 | [ | ||
| 29.5% Vf KF/PA | - | - | - | - | 84 | |||
| EC (GPa) | σC(MPa) | [ | ||||||
| 31.4% Vf CF/PA | 69.4 | 905 | - | - | 63.9 | 426 | ||
| KV (kJ/m2) | ||||||||
| CF/PEEK | - | - | 37 | 480 | 56 | [ | ||
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
| KV(kJ/m2) | ||||||||
| 10 wt% or 8.9% Vf CF/PLA | 20.6 | 256 | 14.5 | 220 | 35 for original CF/PLA | [ | ||
| 10 wt% or 8.9% Vf CF/PLA (Recycled) | 20.6 | 260 | 13.3 | 263 | 39 for recycled CF/PLA | |||
| 25% CF/PLA | - | - | 30 | 335 | - | - | [ | |
| 6.6% Vf CF/PLA | 19.5 | 185 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 6.1% Vf Jute/PLA | 5.1 | 57 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 34% Vf CF/PLA | 23.8 (calculated) | 80 | - | 59 | - | - | [ | |
| 34% Vf CF/PLA With sizing | - | 91 | - | 156 | - | - | ||
| 8.6% Vf AF/PLA | 9.3 | 203 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 6.7% Vf AF/PLA | 14.2 | 150 | - | - | - | - | ||
| FDM | 20% Vf AF/PLA | 24.5 | 330 | - | - | - | - | |
| 30% Vf AF/PLA | 26.6 | 360 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 40% Vf AF/PLA | 40.0 | 660 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 50% Vf AF/PLA | 40.0 | 750 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 30% Vf CF/PLA | 49.1 | 393 | 25.1 | 157 | - | - | [ | |
| 30% Vf CF/PLA With compaction | 63.9 | 536 | 24.0 | 222 | - | - | ||
| 10% Vf CF/PLA | - | 110 | - | 163 | - | - | [ | |
| 10% Vf CF/PLA With compaction | - | 645 | - | 401 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt% CF/ABS | 4.2 | 147 | - | 127 | - | - | [ | |
| 15.16% Vf CF/Onyx | 13 | 160 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 30.10% Vf CF/Onyx | 25 | 330 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 47.50% Vf CF/Onyx | 39 | 490 | - | - | - | - | ||
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | Other properties | Ref. | |
| 71.33% Vf CF/Onyx | 48 | 570 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 15% Vf CF/Onyx | 21.1 | 224 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| FDM | 27% Vf CF/Onyx | 60.9 | 780 | - | - | - | - | [ |
| 38.27 wt.% CF/PEEK | - | - | 37 | 480 | - | - | [ | |
| 54.8 wt.% GF/PP | - | - | 13 | - | - | - | [ | |
| 7 gm-2 CF/Ar | 1.8 | 44 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 17 gm-2 CF/Ar | 2.5 | 42 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 17 gm-2 KF/Ar | 2.1 | 30 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 7 gm-2 GF/Ar | 2.2 | 44 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| SLA | 17 gm-2 GF/Ar | 2.9 | 55 | - | - | - | - | |
| 34 gm-2 GF/Er | 2.8 | 42 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 50 gm-2 GF/Er | 2.4 | 39 | - | - | - | - | ||
| GF/LCR | 1.8 | 79 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| CF/Accura60 resin | 1.0 | 60 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 59% Vf CF/PEEK Without hot-press | 113.8 | 1213 | 89.7 | 671 | - | - | [ | |
| 59% Vf CF/PEEK With hot-press | 133.1 | 1514 | 125.7 | 1901 | - | - | ||
| LOM | 49% Vf CF/PA6 With ultrasound | 105.7 ± 7.2 | 1760 ± 71.7 | 96.5 ± 5.1 | 1026 ± 52.3 | - | - | [ |
| 55% Vf CF/PA6 | 18.0 | 668 | - | 591 | - | - | [ | |
| 52%-55% Vf GF/Epoxy | - | 713 | - | 1190 | - | σC(MPa) 896 | [ | |
Table A2. Summarized mechanical properties for AM-fabricated continuous fiber-reinforced composites.
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 27% Vf CF/PA | 62.5 | 968 | 41.6 | 485 | G (GPa) 2.3 | σS(MPa) 31 | [ | |
| EC (GPa) | σC (MPa) | |||||||
| 40% Vf CF/PA | 60 | 800 | 51 | 540 | 54 | 320 | ||
| 40% Vf GF/PA | 21 | 590 | 22 | 200 | 21 | 140 | [ | |
| 40% Vf KF/PA | 27 | 610 | 26 | 240 | 28 | 97 | ||
| CF filaments (PA6 as sizing agent) | 61.0 | 767 | 35.8 | 546 | - | - | [ | |
| CF with compression | 83.2 | 940 | 57.3 | 1052 | - | - | ||
| 41% Vf CF/PA | 13 | 600 | 38 | 430 | - | - | [ | |
| 35% Vf GF/PA | 7 | 450 | 15 | 149 | - | - | ||
| FDM | 6% Vf CF/PA | 14 | 140 | - | - | - | - | [ |
| 18% Vf CF/PA | 36 | 464 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 11% Vf CF/PA | 7.7 | 216 | 13.0 | 250 | - | - | [ | |
| 8% Vf GF/PA | 3.1 | 194 | 3.9 | 166 | - | - | ||
| 10% Vf GF/PA | 3.8 | 206 | 4.2 | 197 | - | - | ||
| 8% Vf KF/PA | 3.6 | 150 | 4.6 | 107 | - | - | ||
| 10% Vf KF/PA | 4.4 | 164 | 6.7 | 126 | - | - | ||
| 4% Vf KF/PA | 1.8 | 31 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 8% Vf KF/PA | 6.9 | 60 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 10% Vf KF/PA | 9.0 | 84 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 35% Vf CF/PA | 71.2 | 777 | 52 | 583 | - | - | [ | |
| 35% Vf CF/PA_3DCP With compaction | 71.2 | 1031 | 66 | 945 | - | - | ||
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
| EC (GPa) | σC (MPa) | |||||||
| 41% Vf CF/PA | 68 | 701 | - | - | 53 | 223 | [ | |
| 50% Vf GF/PA | 26 | 575 | - | - | 20 | 82 | ||
| EC (GPa) | σC(MPa) | |||||||
| 8.18% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 1.5 | 40 | ||
| 16.59% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 1.9 | 43 | ||
| 17.18% Vf CF/PA | - | - | 5.2 | 84 | - | - | [ | |
| 24.44% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 2.1 | 53 | ||
| 32.19% Vf CF/PA | - | - | 8.9 | 143 | - | - | ||
| 48.93% Vf CF/PA | - | - | 14.2 | 231 | - | - | ||
| σS (MPa) | ||||||||
| 27.2% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 22.2 | |||
| 27.2% Vf GF/PA | - | - | - | - | 13.9 | |||
| FDM | 27.2% Vf KF/PA | - | - | - | - | 13.7 | [ | |
| 73.2% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 31.9 | |||
| 73.2% Vf GF/PA | - | - | - | - | 21.0 | |||
| 73.2% Vf KF/PA | - | - | - | - | 14.3 | |||
| KV(kJ/m2) | ||||||||
| 24.9% Vf CF/PA | - | - | - | - | 33 | |||
| 29.2% Vf GF/PA | - | - | - | - | 207 | [ | ||
| 29.5% Vf KF/PA | - | - | - | - | 84 | |||
| EC (GPa) | σC(MPa) | [ | ||||||
| 31.4% Vf CF/PA | 69.4 | 905 | - | - | 63.9 | 426 | ||
| KV (kJ/m2) | ||||||||
| CF/PEEK | - | - | 37 | 480 | 56 | [ | ||
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | Other properties | Refs. | |
| KV(kJ/m2) | ||||||||
| 10 wt% or 8.9% Vf CF/PLA | 20.6 | 256 | 14.5 | 220 | 35 for original CF/PLA | [ | ||
| 10 wt% or 8.9% Vf CF/PLA (Recycled) | 20.6 | 260 | 13.3 | 263 | 39 for recycled CF/PLA | |||
| 25% CF/PLA | - | - | 30 | 335 | - | - | [ | |
| 6.6% Vf CF/PLA | 19.5 | 185 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 6.1% Vf Jute/PLA | 5.1 | 57 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 34% Vf CF/PLA | 23.8 (calculated) | 80 | - | 59 | - | - | [ | |
| 34% Vf CF/PLA With sizing | - | 91 | - | 156 | - | - | ||
| 8.6% Vf AF/PLA | 9.3 | 203 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 6.7% Vf AF/PLA | 14.2 | 150 | - | - | - | - | ||
| FDM | 20% Vf AF/PLA | 24.5 | 330 | - | - | - | - | |
| 30% Vf AF/PLA | 26.6 | 360 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 40% Vf AF/PLA | 40.0 | 660 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 50% Vf AF/PLA | 40.0 | 750 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 30% Vf CF/PLA | 49.1 | 393 | 25.1 | 157 | - | - | [ | |
| 30% Vf CF/PLA With compaction | 63.9 | 536 | 24.0 | 222 | - | - | ||
| 10% Vf CF/PLA | - | 110 | - | 163 | - | - | [ | |
| 10% Vf CF/PLA With compaction | - | 645 | - | 401 | - | - | ||
| 10 wt% CF/ABS | 4.2 | 147 | - | 127 | - | - | [ | |
| 15.16% Vf CF/Onyx | 13 | 160 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 30.10% Vf CF/Onyx | 25 | 330 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 47.50% Vf CF/Onyx | 39 | 490 | - | - | - | - | ||
| Method | Materials | ET (GPa) | σT (MPa) | EF (GPa) | σF (MPa) | Other properties | Ref. | |
| 71.33% Vf CF/Onyx | 48 | 570 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 15% Vf CF/Onyx | 21.1 | 224 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| FDM | 27% Vf CF/Onyx | 60.9 | 780 | - | - | - | - | [ |
| 38.27 wt.% CF/PEEK | - | - | 37 | 480 | - | - | [ | |
| 54.8 wt.% GF/PP | - | - | 13 | - | - | - | [ | |
| 7 gm-2 CF/Ar | 1.8 | 44 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 17 gm-2 CF/Ar | 2.5 | 42 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 17 gm-2 KF/Ar | 2.1 | 30 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 7 gm-2 GF/Ar | 2.2 | 44 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| SLA | 17 gm-2 GF/Ar | 2.9 | 55 | - | - | - | - | |
| 34 gm-2 GF/Er | 2.8 | 42 | - | - | - | - | ||
| 50 gm-2 GF/Er | 2.4 | 39 | - | - | - | - | ||
| GF/LCR | 1.8 | 79 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| CF/Accura60 resin | 1.0 | 60 | - | - | - | - | [ | |
| 59% Vf CF/PEEK Without hot-press | 113.8 | 1213 | 89.7 | 671 | - | - | [ | |
| 59% Vf CF/PEEK With hot-press | 133.1 | 1514 | 125.7 | 1901 | - | - | ||
| LOM | 49% Vf CF/PA6 With ultrasound | 105.7 ± 7.2 | 1760 ± 71.7 | 96.5 ± 5.1 | 1026 ± 52.3 | - | - | [ |
| 55% Vf CF/PA6 | 18.0 | 668 | - | 591 | - | - | [ | |
| 52%-55% Vf GF/Epoxy | - | 713 | - | 1190 | - | σC(MPa) 896 | [ | |
| Method | Material | ET(GPa) | σT(MPa) | ε(At break) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Injection molding | 21 Vf% Short CF/PA66 | 13 | 124 | 1.68% | [ |
| 31 Vf% Short CF/PA66 | 22 | 150 | 1.26% | ||
| 20 Vf% Long CF/PA66 | 23 | 158 | 0.97% | ||
| 32 Vf% Long CF/PA66 | 29 | 173 | 0.78% |
Table A3. Summary of mechanical properties of traditionally fabricated discontinuous fiber reinforced composites.
| Method | Material | ET(GPa) | σT(MPa) | ε(At break) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Injection molding | 21 Vf% Short CF/PA66 | 13 | 124 | 1.68% | [ |
| 31 Vf% Short CF/PA66 | 22 | 150 | 1.26% | ||
| 20 Vf% Long CF/PA66 | 23 | 158 | 0.97% | ||
| 32 Vf% Long CF/PA66 | 29 | 173 | 0.78% |
| Method | Material | ET(GPa) | σT(MPa) | σC(MPa) | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Compression Molding | 40% Vf CF/PA6 | 28.3 | 296 | 271 | [ |
| 50% Vf CF/PA6 | 48.1 | 393 | 323 | ||
| 60% Vf CF/PA6 | 50.2 | 410 | 367 | ||
| 78% Vf CF/Epoxy | - | 768 | 418 | [ |
Table A4. Summary of mechanical properties of traditionally fabricated continuous fiber reinforced composites.
| Method | Material | ET(GPa) | σT(MPa) | σC(MPa) | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Compression Molding | 40% Vf CF/PA6 | 28.3 | 296 | 271 | [ |
| 50% Vf CF/PA6 | 48.1 | 393 | 323 | ||
| 60% Vf CF/PA6 | 50.2 | 410 | 367 | ||
| 78% Vf CF/Epoxy | - | 768 | 418 | [ |
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