Bacterial anti-adhesion surface design: Surface patterning, roughness and wettability: A review

doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2021.05.028

Abstract

Abstract:

Bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation impose a heavy burden on the medical system. Bacterial adhesion on implant materials would induce inflammation and result in implant failure. The adhesion of bacteria on food-processing and handling equipment may lead to food-borne illness. To reduce and even prevent bacterial adhesion, some bacterial anti-adhesion surface designs have been developed. However, the effect of some surface properties (including surface patterning, roughness and wettability) on bacterial adhesion has not been systematically summarized. In this review, a comprehensive overview of bacterial anti-adhesion surface design is presented. Modifying the surface pattern and roughness could reduce the contact area between bacteria and surfaces to weaken the initial adhesion force. Fabricating superhydrophobic surface or modifying hydrophilic functional groups could hinder the bacterial adhesion. The analysis and discussion about influencing factors of bacterial anti-adhesion surfaces provide basic guidelines on antibacterial surface design for future researches.

Key words: Bacterial anti-adhesion, Surface patterning, Roughness, Wettability

Kun Yang, Jirong Shi, Lei Wang, Yingzhi Chen, Chunyong Liang, Lei Yang, Lu-Ning Wang. Bacterial anti-adhesion surface design: Surface patterning, roughness and wettability: A review[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2022, 99: 82-100.

Figures/Tables 11

Fig. 1. Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory and methods of measuring bacteria-surface adhesion force. (a) The representative DLVO curve showing the relation between interaction energy and separation distance. The total interactions include van der Waals interactions and electrostatic interactions. Reproduced with permission [31]. Copyright 2014, Elsevier. (b) The cartoons showing the preparation process of bacterial probe (top image) and the measurement process of single-cell force spectroscopy (SCFS) (bottom image). Reproduced with permission [49]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (c) The cartoon at the left showing the single cell lateral force microscopy. The AFM topography images before (middle image) and after (right image) scanning with corresponding force value, to distinguish the bacterial displacement. Reproduced with permission [50]. Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing.

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of strategies to measure bacteria-surface adhesion force and calculate the interaction energy on modified surface with patterning, roughness and wettability. Bacterial probe reflects the change of the contact area on patterned or irregular surfaces or the number of hydrogen bonds on hydrophobic/hydrophilic surfaces. Standard AFM tip could measure the bacterial lateral adhesion force and the size of attached bacteria. Microfluidic devices could track single bacterial activity near a surface, like swimming, movement and adhesion. The interaction energy between bacteria and modified surfaces is based on DLVO or extended DLVO (XDLVO) theory.

Fig. 3. SEM images of different patterned surface. (a) Nanospikes on black silicon (reactive ion etching (RIE) treatment), the insert showing the side view image. Reprinted with permission from [58]. Copyright 2013, Springer Nature. (b) TiO2 nanotube array with the diameter of 80 nm (anodizing treatment). Reproduced with permission [59]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (c) Micro wells on silicon wafer (photolithography and deep RIE). Reproduced with permission [60]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier. (d) Nanoripples on steel surface (femtosecond laser treatment). Reproduced with permission [61]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (e) Micro grooves on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) surface (photolithography and RIE). Reproduced with permission [62]. Copyright 2005, Royal Society of Chemistry. (f) Submicro pillars on 316L stainless steel surface (femtosecond laser treatment). Reproduced with permission [63]. Under a CC-BY License, Copyright 2018, Springer Nature. (g) Long submicro pillars silicon surface (vapor-liquid-solid growth method). Reprinted with permission from [64]. Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society. (h) Hexagonal micro pillars PDMS surface (photolithography). Reproduced with permission [65]. Copyright 2014, Elsevier. (i) Micro protrusions with nano structures on titanium (femtosecond laser treatment), the insert showing the nanostructures on the micro protrusions. Reprinted with permission from [66]. Copyright 2011, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 4. The antibacterial efficiency and feature size of different surface patterns. The feature size refers to the diameter of high-aspect-ratio nanostructures, nanotubes, micro wells, submicro pillars, micro pillars or micro protrusions and the line width of nanoripples or micro grooves. The number of attached bacteria on flat plane or rough surface (meeting industry standards) is used for normalization. The bacterial species and evaluation methods of antibacterial efficiency are neglected. The black dotted line showing the antibacterial efficiency of 50%. The blue dotted box at the left showing high-aspect-ratio nanostructures have the best antibacterial ability due to the bactericidal capacity; the red dotted box in the middle showing that some patterned surfaces with feature size close to 1 μm have anti-adhesion ability; the purple dotted box at the right showing that larger patterns trap bacteria in the valleys. Data are collected from literatures [56, 58, [60], [61], [62], [63], [64], [65], [67], [68], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75], [76], [77], [78], [79], [80], [81], [82], [83], [84], [85], [86], [87], [88], [89], [90], [91], [92], [93], [94]].

Fig. 5. The mechano-bactericidal mechanism of high-aspect-ratio nanostructures. Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) sinking on cicada wing surface (a) SEM top view and (b) FIB-SEM image. Reproduced with permission [67]. Copyright 2012, John Wiley and Sons. The biophysical model (c) and simulation results (d, e) of bacterial membrane rupture on nanospikes. The bacterial membrane stretches between nanospikes until rupture. Reproduced with permission [95]. Copyright 2013, Elsevier. (f) The cartoon at the top showing the puncturing process with AFM tip. Force spectrum of AFM probe showing the information of puncturing Salmonella typhimurium, including the bacterial height and the force value required to puncture the bacterium. The time-lapse images at the bottom showing the viability of bacteria after repeated puncturing, in which the white arrows indicating the reproduction of bacteria. Reprinted with permission from [108]. Copyright 2009, American Chemical Society. (g) The protein interaction and abundance diagram after Escherichia coli (E. coli) membrane deformed by nanospikes. The SEM images at the bottom showing the deformed bacteria. Reproduced with permission [106]. Under a CC-BY License, Copyright 2020, Springer Nature.

Fig. 6. The bacterial adhesion on different patterned surfaces. (a) Comparison of S. aureus adhesion force and friction coefficient on TiO2 nanotubes with different diameters. The illustration showing a cartoon of the bacterial probe on nanotubes. Reproduced with permission [59]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. AFM topographic images of (b, c) S. aureus and (d, e) P. aeruginosa remained on micro wells surface and smooth surface after scanning with contact mode. The insets showing the adhesion models. Reproduced with permission [127]. Copyright 2006, Elsevier. (f) The cartoon at the top showing Neisseria gonorrhoeae with pili in the micro groove. The bright field images showing the typical time sequence of bacterial movement. Reproduced with permission [143]. Copyright 2011, John Wiley and Sons. (g) The trace of Myxococcus xanthus within circular grooves. Red line showing the trace of a single bacterium. Reproduced with permission [144]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier. (h) The cartoon at the top showing SCFS measurement on the submicro pillar structures. The adhesion force of S. aureus on short submicro pillars with spacing of 200 nm, 400 nm and 800 nm respectively. Reprinted with permission from [145]. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. (i) Comparison of the interaction energy of Sporomusa ovata on long submicro pillars in vertical or parallel direction in culture medium with 0 mM or 200 mM NaCl. The SEM images showing unligned adhesion with 0 mM NaCl and aligned adhesion with 200 mM NaCl. Reprinted with permission from [56]. Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society. (j) SEM images of taro leaf (left image). The red square frame indicates the boundary area and blue square frame indicates the center area. AFM adhesion force mapping at micro protrusion center region (middle image) and micron protrusion boundary (right image). Reprinted with permission from [146]. Copyright 2011, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 7. The normalized number of adherent cells and roughness parameters (used in average roughness Ra or root mean square roughness RMS). Each group of data is shown as different colors or symbols. Adherent bacterial number on the minimum roughness surface is used for normalization in each group of data. The bacterial species and evaluation methods of antibacterial effect are neglected. At the lower roughness region (Ra or RMS< 6 nm), it shows a negative correlation between bacterial adhesion and nano roughness. At higher roughness region, it shows a positive correlation between bacterial adhesion and submicron or micron roughness. Generally, nano scale roughness surface provides better anti-adhesion property than smooth surface or large scale roughness surface. Data are collected from literatures [21, 52, [155], [156], [157], [158], [159], [160], [161], [162], [163], [164], [165], [166], [167], [168]].

Table 1 Surface roughness and bacterial adhesion

Classification	Material (surface treatment)	Ra	Rq/RMS	Bacterial species	Correlation of roughness and adhesion	Ref.
Nano roughness	Glass (Ti film)	0.64-1.47 nm	0.87-2.25 nm	S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[21]
Nano roughness	Glass (etched)	1.3-2.1 nm	1.6-2.8 nm	P. issachenkonii	Negative	[155]
Nano roughness	Glass (etched)	1.3-2.1 nm	1.6-2.8 nm	E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[156]
Nano roughness	Glass (Ti film)	1.58-4.82 nm	2.00-6.13 nm	E. coli	Negative	[157]
Nano roughness	Ti (ECAP)	0.16-0.21 nm	0.23-0.29 nm	S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[158]
Nano roughness	Glass (silanized)	―	0.16-0.73 nm	E. coli	Positive	[52]
Nano roughness	SS 316L (Si ion implantation)	0.206-0.506 nm	0.259-0.677 nm	S. aureus, S. epidermidis	Negative	[169]
Nano roughness	Ti (YSZ film)	―	11.58-17.99 nm	E. coli, S. aureus	Positive	[170]
Nano roughness	SS 316L (carbon coatings)	4.7-17.3 nm.	―	E. coli, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[159]
Nano roughness	Ti-6Al-4V, Ti, Co-Cr-Mo, SS 316L, Oxinium	1.8-30.0 nm	―	S. epidermidis	Positive	[160]
Nano roughness	marble, granite, PP, SS 304/316	2-22 nm	―	S. aureus, S. xylosus	Positive	[161]
Submicron roughness	YSZ bio-ceramic	1.1-205 nm	―	S. aureus	Positive	[162]
Submicron roughness	Ti (etched)	―	10-500 nm	E. coli	Positive	[163]
Submicron roughness	Ti (etched)	0.31-0.80 μm	―	E. coli	Negative	[164]
Submicron roughness	SS 304	―	25.20-986 nm	Eight food related bacteria	Positive	[171]
Submicron roughness	SS 316L, Ti-6Al-4V	113-463 nm	―	E. coli, S. aureus	Positive	[165]
Micron roughness	SS 316L, Si	0.023-1.89 μm	―	Nine oral bacteria	Positive	[172]
Micron roughness	Ti/ZrO₂(silanized)	0.09-2.98 μm	―	S. sanguinis	Positive	[166]
Micron roughness	Ti/ZrO₂(silanized)	0.09-2.98 μm	―	S. epidermidis	None	[166]
Micron roughness	PMMA, cyclic olefin copolymer	0.01, 0.1, 0.4, 1, 2, 5 μm	―	P. fluorescens	Adhesion most at Ra=2 μm	[173]
Micron roughness	SS 316L (shot peened)	0.09-8.14 μm	0.13-10.10 μm	S. aureus, S. epidermidis	Negative	[167]
Micron roughness	Bioactive glass (fs laser treated)	0.42-6.25 μm	―	S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[174]
Micron roughness	Ti-6Al-4V	0.283-10.835 μm	―	S. sanguinis	Positive	[168]

Table 1 Surface roughness and bacterial adhesion

Classification	Material (surface treatment)	Ra	Rq/RMS	Bacterial species	Correlation of roughness and adhesion	Ref.
Nano roughness	Glass (Ti film)	0.64-1.47 nm	0.87-2.25 nm	S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[21]
Nano roughness	Glass (etched)	1.3-2.1 nm	1.6-2.8 nm	P. issachenkonii	Negative	[155]
Nano roughness	Glass (etched)	1.3-2.1 nm	1.6-2.8 nm	E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[156]
Nano roughness	Glass (Ti film)	1.58-4.82 nm	2.00-6.13 nm	E. coli	Negative	[157]
Nano roughness	Ti (ECAP)	0.16-0.21 nm	0.23-0.29 nm	S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[158]
Nano roughness	Glass (silanized)	―	0.16-0.73 nm	E. coli	Positive	[52]
Nano roughness	SS 316L (Si ion implantation)	0.206-0.506 nm	0.259-0.677 nm	S. aureus, S. epidermidis	Negative	[169]
Nano roughness	Ti (YSZ film)	―	11.58-17.99 nm	E. coli, S. aureus	Positive	[170]
Nano roughness	SS 316L (carbon coatings)	4.7-17.3 nm.	―	E. coli, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[159]
Nano roughness	Ti-6Al-4V, Ti, Co-Cr-Mo, SS 316L, Oxinium	1.8-30.0 nm	―	S. epidermidis	Positive	[160]
Nano roughness	marble, granite, PP, SS 304/316	2-22 nm	―	S. aureus, S. xylosus	Positive	[161]
Submicron roughness	YSZ bio-ceramic	1.1-205 nm	―	S. aureus	Positive	[162]
Submicron roughness	Ti (etched)	―	10-500 nm	E. coli	Positive	[163]
Submicron roughness	Ti (etched)	0.31-0.80 μm	―	E. coli	Negative	[164]
Submicron roughness	SS 304	―	25.20-986 nm	Eight food related bacteria	Positive	[171]
Submicron roughness	SS 316L, Ti-6Al-4V	113-463 nm	―	E. coli, S. aureus	Positive	[165]
Micron roughness	SS 316L, Si	0.023-1.89 μm	―	Nine oral bacteria	Positive	[172]
Micron roughness	Ti/ZrO₂(silanized)	0.09-2.98 μm	―	S. sanguinis	Positive	[166]
Micron roughness	Ti/ZrO₂(silanized)	0.09-2.98 μm	―	S. epidermidis	None	[166]
Micron roughness	PMMA, cyclic olefin copolymer	0.01, 0.1, 0.4, 1, 2, 5 μm	―	P. fluorescens	Adhesion most at Ra=2 μm	[173]
Micron roughness	SS 316L (shot peened)	0.09-8.14 μm	0.13-10.10 μm	S. aureus, S. epidermidis	Negative	[167]
Micron roughness	Bioactive glass (fs laser treated)	0.42-6.25 μm	―	S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[174]
Micron roughness	Ti-6Al-4V	0.283-10.835 μm	―	S. sanguinis	Positive	[168]

Fig. 8. The antibacterial mechanism of roughness. (a) Comparison of S. aureus adhesion force obtained from SCFS on the surface with different nano roughness (RMS = 0.1 nm, 7 nm, 24 nm, 35 nm). The cartoon at the left showing the different number of macromolecules tethered to these surfaces. Reprinted with permission from [175]. Copyright 2019, the Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Schematic depiction showing different deformation and contact area of bacteria (fixed on the AFM cantilever) when touching the different scale roughness surfaces. Reproduced with permission [180]. Copyright 2015, John Wiley and Sons. (c) The cartoon showing the different contact area of bacteria on smooth surface, nano roughness surface and micron roughness surface. Reproduced with permission [163]. Copyright 2014, Elsevier. (d) Comparison of E. coli density on stainless steel surfaces with different roughness (Ra = 0.04 μm, 0.14 μm, 1.37 μm) before and after rinsing with vortex water (2000 rpm, 15 min). Reproduced with permission [181]. Copyright 2010, Elsevier. (e) Comparison of the effect of average roughness (Ra) and peak density (Spd) on the interaction energy. The schematic diagram at the left showing the strategy of combining surface element integration method with XDLVO theory, in which the separation distance (shown as h1, h2, h3) of each area is calculated with the surface profile f(r, θ) and bacterial size (diameter a). Reproduced with permission [57]. Copyright 2014, Elsevier.

Table 2 Wettability and bacterial adhesion.

Classification	Material (surface treatment)	WCA	Bacterial species	Correlation of WCA and adhesion	Ref.
Moderate wettable	Ti, Ti6Al4V (laser treated)	31.9°-74.3°	S. aureus	Positive	[188]
Moderate wettable	Ti-35Nb-7Zr-6Ta (laser nitriding)	27.1°-82.9°	S. aureus	Positive	[189]
Moderate wettable	11 different glass and metal oxide-coated glass	9°-68°	E. coli, B. cepacia, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis	None	[190]
Moderate wettable	SS 304 (laser micro-polishing)	49°-96°	E. coli	Negative	[191]
Moderate wettable	SS 316L (plasma spraying HMDSO)	24°-102°	S. aureus	Negative	[192]
Moderate wettable	CoCr alloy (carbon film)	65.4°-90.3°	S. mutans, A. viscosus, C. albicans	Positive	[193]
Moderate wettable	Ti-6Al-4V (SLM)	95.3°-114.5°	S. aureus	Positive	[194]
Moderate wettable	Ti/ZrO₂ (silanized)	41.4°-107.6°	S. epidermidis	Positive	[166]
Moderate wettable	Ti/ZrO₂ (silanized)	41.4°-107.6°	S. sanguinis	None	[166]
Moderate wettable	poly(vinylidene fluoride) (grafted poly(N-isopropylacrylamide))	77°-106°	E. coli	Positive	[195]
Moderate wettable	Teflon, PC, PU, Ti, Silicone, Borosilicate glass	20.9°-111.6°	E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. epidermidis, C. albicans	Positive	[196]
Moderate wettable	Contact lenses and recipients (Glass, PMMA, Silicone rubber)	30°-107°	S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[197]
Moderate wettable	Polyethylene (fs laser treated)	64.5°-120.5°	E. coli	Negative	[198]
Moderate wettable	Polyethylene (fs laser treated)	64.5°-120.5°	S. aureus	None	[198]
Superhydrophilic	SS 316 (TiO₂ coating)	5° (71.2°)	E. coli	Inhibition	[199]
Superhydrophilic	Supramolecular gelators (rose structures)	7° (58°)	E. coli	Inhibition	[200]
Superhydrophilic	Degummed silk (coat PS nanospheres)	10° (60°)	S. aureus, E. coli	Inhibition	[103]
Superhydrophobic	SS 316 (CNT-PTFE coating)	154.6° (71.2°)	E. coli	Inhibition	[199]
Superhydrophobic	Supramolecular gelators (rose structures)	154° (58°)	E. coli	Inhibition	[200]
Superhydrophobic	Ti (anodizing and silanized)	156°	S. aureus	Inhibition	[119]
Superhydrophobic	Ti(anodizing and myristic acid)	176.3° (67.6°)	Pseudomonas sp, Bacillus sp	Inhibition	[201]
Superhydrophobic	Fluorinated Silica Colloid	167.7° (88.3°)	S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Inhibition	[202]
Superhydrophobic	Silicone elastomer (AACVD)	165° (95°)	S. aureus, E. coli	Inhibition	[203]
Superhydrophobic	Pure Ti (fs laser treated)	166° (73°)	S. aureus	Promotion	[66, 204]
Superhydrophobic	Pure Ti (fs laser treated)	166° (73°)	P. aeruginosa	Inhibition	[66, 204]
Superhydrophobic	Pure Ti (discharge plasma with Ar, O₂ and HMDSO gases)	150° (35°)	S. mutans	Inhibition	[205]

Table 2 Wettability and bacterial adhesion.

Classification	Material (surface treatment)	WCA	Bacterial species	Correlation of WCA and adhesion	Ref.
Moderate wettable	Ti, Ti6Al4V (laser treated)	31.9°-74.3°	S. aureus	Positive	[188]
Moderate wettable	Ti-35Nb-7Zr-6Ta (laser nitriding)	27.1°-82.9°	S. aureus	Positive	[189]
Moderate wettable	11 different glass and metal oxide-coated glass	9°-68°	E. coli, B. cepacia, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis	None	[190]
Moderate wettable	SS 304 (laser micro-polishing)	49°-96°	E. coli	Negative	[191]
Moderate wettable	SS 316L (plasma spraying HMDSO)	24°-102°	S. aureus	Negative	[192]
Moderate wettable	CoCr alloy (carbon film)	65.4°-90.3°	S. mutans, A. viscosus, C. albicans	Positive	[193]
Moderate wettable	Ti-6Al-4V (SLM)	95.3°-114.5°	S. aureus	Positive	[194]
Moderate wettable	Ti/ZrO₂ (silanized)	41.4°-107.6°	S. epidermidis	Positive	[166]
Moderate wettable	Ti/ZrO₂ (silanized)	41.4°-107.6°	S. sanguinis	None	[166]
Moderate wettable	poly(vinylidene fluoride) (grafted poly(N-isopropylacrylamide))	77°-106°	E. coli	Positive	[195]
Moderate wettable	Teflon, PC, PU, Ti, Silicone, Borosilicate glass	20.9°-111.6°	E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. epidermidis, C. albicans	Positive	[196]
Moderate wettable	Contact lenses and recipients (Glass, PMMA, Silicone rubber)	30°-107°	S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Negative	[197]
Moderate wettable	Polyethylene (fs laser treated)	64.5°-120.5°	E. coli	Negative	[198]
Moderate wettable	Polyethylene (fs laser treated)	64.5°-120.5°	S. aureus	None	[198]
Superhydrophilic	SS 316 (TiO₂ coating)	5° (71.2°)	E. coli	Inhibition	[199]
Superhydrophilic	Supramolecular gelators (rose structures)	7° (58°)	E. coli	Inhibition	[200]
Superhydrophilic	Degummed silk (coat PS nanospheres)	10° (60°)	S. aureus, E. coli	Inhibition	[103]
Superhydrophobic	SS 316 (CNT-PTFE coating)	154.6° (71.2°)	E. coli	Inhibition	[199]
Superhydrophobic	Supramolecular gelators (rose structures)	154° (58°)	E. coli	Inhibition	[200]
Superhydrophobic	Ti (anodizing and silanized)	156°	S. aureus	Inhibition	[119]
Superhydrophobic	Ti(anodizing and myristic acid)	176.3° (67.6°)	Pseudomonas sp, Bacillus sp	Inhibition	[201]
Superhydrophobic	Fluorinated Silica Colloid	167.7° (88.3°)	S. aureus, P. aeruginosa	Inhibition	[202]
Superhydrophobic	Silicone elastomer (AACVD)	165° (95°)	S. aureus, E. coli	Inhibition	[203]
Superhydrophobic	Pure Ti (fs laser treated)	166° (73°)	S. aureus	Promotion	[66, 204]
Superhydrophobic	Pure Ti (fs laser treated)	166° (73°)	P. aeruginosa	Inhibition	[66, 204]
Superhydrophobic	Pure Ti (discharge plasma with Ar, O₂ and HMDSO gases)	150° (35°)	S. mutans	Inhibition	[205]

Fig. 9. The antibacterial mechanism of wettability. Adhesion force histogram obtained from SCFS of Lactobacillus plantarum on (a) hydrophobic methyl-terminated monolayer and (b) hydrophilic hydroxyl-terminated monolayer. Reproduced with permission [48]. Copyright 2013, Elsevier. AFM topographic images of P. aeruginosa on (c) hydrophobic highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) and (d) hydrophilic mica. The illustrations are the corresponding bacterial outlines. Reproduced with permission [212]. Copyright 2010, Elsevier. Representative force-distance curves for Staphylococcus epidermidis on (e) hydrophobic, dimethyldichlorosilane (DDS)-coated glass and (f) hydrophilic glass with retract curves after holding time of 0 s, 10 s, 60 s and 120 s. Reprinted with permission from [218]. Copyright 2008, American Chemical Society. (g) Schematics of coccoid-shaped S. aureus and long rod-shaped E. coli accumulation at the superhydrophilic and superhydrophobic stainless steel surfaces. S. aureus colonizes on the side wall and the gap of superhydrophilic surfaces and accumulates at the three-phase interface (air, liquid and solid) of superhydrophobic surfaces. E. coli swims to these two surfaces, but fails to attach to these surfaces. Reprinted with permission from [223]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. The illustration showing the trapped air nanobubbles hindered S. aureus adhesion. Reprinted with permission from [153]. Copyright 2012, Taylor & Francis. (h) Comparison of the adhesion mechanism of Gram-negative bacteria on different wettability surfaces. Reproduced with permission [200]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (i) Comparison of the adhesion mechanism of Gram-positive bacteria on different wettability surfaces. Reprinted with permission from [226]. Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.

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