J. Mater. Sci. Technol. ›› 2022, Vol. 111: 120-151.DOI: 10.1016/j.jmst.2021.09.039
• Research Article • Previous Articles Next Articles
Wei Juene Chonga,b, Shirley Shenb, Yuncang Lia, Adrian Trinchib, Dejana Pejakb, Ilias (Louis) Kyratzisb, Antonella Solab,*(
), Cuie Wena,*()
Received:2021-07-25
Revised:2021-09-10
Accepted:2021-09-12
Published:2021-11-27
Online:2021-11-27
Contact:
Antonella Sola,Cuie Wen
About author:cuie.wen@rmit.edu.au (C. Wen).Wei Juene Chong, Shirley Shen, Yuncang Li, Adrian Trinchi, Dejana Pejak, Ilias (Louis) Kyratzis, Antonella Sola, Cuie Wen. Additive manufacturing of antibacterial PLA-ZnO nanocomposites: Benefits, limitations and open challenges[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2022, 111: 120-151.
Fig. 1. Number of contributions published annually on PLA-ZnO (nano)composites. Papers currently “in press” have been grouped with those already published in 2021 (2021+). Data obtained from a Scopus search conducted on June 21, 2021, entering [(PLA) AND (ZnO) AND (composite OR nanocomposite)] in title, abstract and keywords, and selecting the contributions where the filler is dispersed in the polymer matrix. The addition of relevant papers through cross-referencing led to a batch of 86 articles that are listed in Appendix A (Materials) and in Appendix B (Compounding and manufacturing).
Fig. 2. Cycle of PLA, from bio-based resourcing to 3D printing. Reproduced from [16] under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.
Fig. 3. Structure of PLA isomers: L-PLA (PLLA), D-PLA (PDLA), and D,L-PLA (PDLLA). Reproduced from [38] under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.
| Interaction | Mechanism | Functioning |
|---|---|---|
| Nanoparticle-cell | Electrostatic aggregation | Based on the original research conducted by Stoimenov et al. [86], MgO nanoparticles have been reported to be positively charged in water (strongly positive Z potential), whereas the overall charge of bacteria and spore cells at biological pH values is negative. Due to the electrostatic interaction, nanoparticles and bacteria cells clamp together to form aggregates and the local concentration of nanoparticles disturbs the normal physiology of the cell membrane [86]. Although initially observed for MgO nanoparticles produced by an aerogel procedure [86], the electrostatic aggregation mechanism has also been attributed to ZnO [63]. |
| Nanoparticle-cell | Nanoparticle accumulation into cells | Owing to their nanometer-scale size, ZnO nanoparticles can migrate through the cell membrane and accumulate inside the cell and cytoplasm of bacteria. The accumulation of ZnO nanoparticles thus destroys the bacterial cell integrity [84]. |
| Chemical species-cell | Release of Zn2+ ions | Zn2+ ions leaked into growth media interfere with nutrient transport mechanisms, impair bacteria metabolism and disrupt cell wall and membrane. The altered membrane permeability is conducive to the penetration and accumulation of more nanoparticles into the cell [82]. |
| Chemical species-cell | Photoactivated formation of ROS | The generation of ROS from water and oxygen (mainly hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and superoxide ions) is a consequence of the strong photocatalytic activity of ZnO under UV irradiation. ROS disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane and inhibit bacteria growth [83]. Photoactivated ROS generation has also found application in anti-cancer treatments [85]. |
Table 1. Antibacterial mechanisms proposed for ZnO nanoparticles.
| Interaction | Mechanism | Functioning |
|---|---|---|
| Nanoparticle-cell | Electrostatic aggregation | Based on the original research conducted by Stoimenov et al. [86], MgO nanoparticles have been reported to be positively charged in water (strongly positive Z potential), whereas the overall charge of bacteria and spore cells at biological pH values is negative. Due to the electrostatic interaction, nanoparticles and bacteria cells clamp together to form aggregates and the local concentration of nanoparticles disturbs the normal physiology of the cell membrane [86]. Although initially observed for MgO nanoparticles produced by an aerogel procedure [86], the electrostatic aggregation mechanism has also been attributed to ZnO [63]. |
| Nanoparticle-cell | Nanoparticle accumulation into cells | Owing to their nanometer-scale size, ZnO nanoparticles can migrate through the cell membrane and accumulate inside the cell and cytoplasm of bacteria. The accumulation of ZnO nanoparticles thus destroys the bacterial cell integrity [84]. |
| Chemical species-cell | Release of Zn2+ ions | Zn2+ ions leaked into growth media interfere with nutrient transport mechanisms, impair bacteria metabolism and disrupt cell wall and membrane. The altered membrane permeability is conducive to the penetration and accumulation of more nanoparticles into the cell [82]. |
| Chemical species-cell | Photoactivated formation of ROS | The generation of ROS from water and oxygen (mainly hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and superoxide ions) is a consequence of the strong photocatalytic activity of ZnO under UV irradiation. ROS disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane and inhibit bacteria growth [83]. Photoactivated ROS generation has also found application in anti-cancer treatments [85]. |
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the main antibacterial mechanisms of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs).
Fig. 5. Bio-degradation of the PLA matrix leading to a gradual release of ZnO nanoparticles that activates the antibacterial mechanisms over time (schematic drawing; light green color stands for ZnO-affected bacteria).
| Processing Methods | Principle | Geometries |
|---|---|---|
| Compression molding | Compression molding shapes the feedstock material to a sheet or thick film by the combined action of heat and pressure. The polymer powder or granules are loaded in a recess of the lower platen, then the upper platen is closed. The two platens are pressed together and heated. When the platens open again, the material cools down in the final shape [146] | Sheets; thick films |
| Electrospinning | Electrospinning applies a high electrical voltage to overcome the surface tension and generate a liquid jet from a polymer solution drop, followed by stretching and elongation to generate fibers. Does not require heating (with the exception of melt electrospinning). Typical diameters < 100 nm [147] | Nanofibers |
| Extrusion | Melt extrusion uses mechanical shear from the screw(s) and thermal heat from the barrel of an extruder to process materials into melt, which is subsequently forced out of the die through frictional force. The geometry (cross-section) of the extrudate depends on the shape of the die in use. Core-shell filaments, hollow tubes, fibers (diameters: 10-12 μm), and multi-layer films are feasible with specific set-ups [148,149] | Filaments; fibers; tubes; thin films (film extrusion); micro-scale fibers (melt spinning) |
| Injection molding | Injection molding injects molten material into a mold, and upon cooling, the molten material hardens to form the required geometry [150] | Various |
| Solvent casting | Solvent casting obtains films from polymer solutions or polymer-based dispersions (composite films). The solution is poured on a non-stick surface and the solvent is evaporated in air or under vacuum. Scaffolds can be easily produced if solvent casting is combined with additional processing steps, e.g., particle leaching [151] | Films; Thicker samples (under controlled conditions) |
Table 2. Conventional processing methods for PLA-ZnO nanocomposites.
| Processing Methods | Principle | Geometries |
|---|---|---|
| Compression molding | Compression molding shapes the feedstock material to a sheet or thick film by the combined action of heat and pressure. The polymer powder or granules are loaded in a recess of the lower platen, then the upper platen is closed. The two platens are pressed together and heated. When the platens open again, the material cools down in the final shape [146] | Sheets; thick films |
| Electrospinning | Electrospinning applies a high electrical voltage to overcome the surface tension and generate a liquid jet from a polymer solution drop, followed by stretching and elongation to generate fibers. Does not require heating (with the exception of melt electrospinning). Typical diameters < 100 nm [147] | Nanofibers |
| Extrusion | Melt extrusion uses mechanical shear from the screw(s) and thermal heat from the barrel of an extruder to process materials into melt, which is subsequently forced out of the die through frictional force. The geometry (cross-section) of the extrudate depends on the shape of the die in use. Core-shell filaments, hollow tubes, fibers (diameters: 10-12 μm), and multi-layer films are feasible with specific set-ups [148,149] | Filaments; fibers; tubes; thin films (film extrusion); micro-scale fibers (melt spinning) |
| Injection molding | Injection molding injects molten material into a mold, and upon cooling, the molten material hardens to form the required geometry [150] | Various |
| Solvent casting | Solvent casting obtains films from polymer solutions or polymer-based dispersions (composite films). The solution is poured on a non-stick surface and the solvent is evaporated in air or under vacuum. Scaffolds can be easily produced if solvent casting is combined with additional processing steps, e.g., particle leaching [151] | Films; Thicker samples (under controlled conditions) |
Fig. 6. Morphology of ZnO nanofiller (a), and nanostructure of PLA-matrix composite films with 1% and 2% filler loadings obtained using the masterbatch technique (method A, b-e) and the traditional melt compounding technique (method B, f-i). Reproduced from [170] under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.
Fig. 7. Schematic of an FFF printer (direct driven feeding mechanism, single nozzle printhead).
Fig. 8. Flowchart of the digital manufacturing steps that lead up to printing the dersired object. The CAD design may be derived from CT-scans or radiographic images for the customization of biomedical implants.
| Reference | No. | Matrix | Filler | ZnO wt% | Compounding | Characterization | Printing |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brounstein et al., 2021 | [ | PLA /PLA + 10 wt% PEG | ZnO powder (commercial)* | 10, 20, 30 | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Mechanical properties Thermal properties Antibacterial properties (tested on filaments) | no |
| Junpha et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + 10 wt% PCL + 10 wt% SBS | ZnO powder (commercial) | 5 (+ 10 wt% CNTs) | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Physico-chemical properties Thermoelectric properties Cyclic voltammetry (tested on printed parts) | yes |
| Kumar et al., in press | [ | PLA | ZnO powder (synthesized by co-precipitation) | 1, 2 | Melt compounding (pre-blending with linseed oil) | Mechanical properties Fracture surface properties Thermal properties Shape memory effect (tested on filaments) | yes |
| Singh et al., in press | [ | PLA | ZnO powder (commercial) | 2 | Melt compounding | Mechanical properties Thermal properties Shape memory effect (tested on printed parts) | yes |
Table 3. Studies related to the fabrication of PLA-ZnO (nano)composite filaments for FFF.
| Reference | No. | Matrix | Filler | ZnO wt% | Compounding | Characterization | Printing |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brounstein et al., 2021 | [ | PLA /PLA + 10 wt% PEG | ZnO powder (commercial)* | 10, 20, 30 | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Mechanical properties Thermal properties Antibacterial properties (tested on filaments) | no |
| Junpha et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + 10 wt% PCL + 10 wt% SBS | ZnO powder (commercial) | 5 (+ 10 wt% CNTs) | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Physico-chemical properties Thermoelectric properties Cyclic voltammetry (tested on printed parts) | yes |
| Kumar et al., in press | [ | PLA | ZnO powder (synthesized by co-precipitation) | 1, 2 | Melt compounding (pre-blending with linseed oil) | Mechanical properties Fracture surface properties Thermal properties Shape memory effect (tested on filaments) | yes |
| Singh et al., in press | [ | PLA | ZnO powder (commercial) | 2 | Melt compounding | Mechanical properties Thermal properties Shape memory effect (tested on printed parts) | yes |
Fig. 9. Digital microscopy images of the cross section of filaments produced by Brounstein et al. [24]: (a) PLA with 10 wt% TiO2; (b) PLA with 10 wt% ZnO; (c) PLA with 10 wt% PEG (2k) and 10 wt% TiO2; (d) PLA with 10 wt% PEG (2k) and 10 wt% ZnO. Scale bar: 100 µm for all frames. Reproduced from [24] under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.
Fig. 10. Discrete nature of the material's layers in additively manufactured parts being responsible for a discrepancy between intended profile and real geometry, which is known as stair-stepping (or staircase) effect.
Fig. 11. Common processing-induced defects in FFF parts, including intra-bead pores, inter-bead voids and weak inter-layer interfaces.
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ahmed et al., 2016 | [ | PLA + PEG (plasticiser) | ZnO, small ZnO, large Silver-copper nanoparticles, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma-Aldrich®) | ZnO, small: Size < 50 nm (supplier) ZnO, large: Size < 100 nm (supplier) |
| Ahmed et al., 2016 | [ | PLA + PEG (plasticiser) 80/20 | ZnO, small ZnO, large Silver-copper nanoparticles, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma-Aldrich®) | ZnO, small: Size < 50 nm (supplier) ZnO, large: Size < 100 nm (supplier) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Ahmed et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + PCL (1:1 wt/wt) + PEG | Zano 20 Plus-3: 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO Clove essential oil, mixed and for comparison | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | N.Av. |
| Anžlovar et al., 2018 | [ | PLA poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) | ZnO | Seeded polyol method | Size: 20-50 nm |
| Arfat et al., 2017 | [ | PLA + PEG 80/20 | Zano 20 Zano 20 Plus-3: 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO, for comparison | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Zano 20: Size ∼ 30 nm (supplier) Both ZnO fillers: hexagonal (wurtzite) structure (XRD) |
| Bajwa et al., 2021 | [ | PLA | ZnO ZnO blends with cellulose nanocrystals, mixed and for comparison | Sol-gel | Shape: spherical (TEM) Size: 15-65 nm (TEM) |
| Benali et al., 2015 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (literature) Diameter: 15-30 nm (literature) length: 100 nm (literature) |
| Brounstein et al., 2021 | [ | PLA PLA + PEG 90/10 | ZnO TiO2, for comparison | Commercial (Thermo Fisher Scientific) | Size: 80% between 1 and 7 µm (granulometric analysis) |
| Bussiere et al., 2012 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (supplier) Size ∼30 nm (supplier) |
| Chen et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + flame retardant + Ammonium polyphosphate | ZnO Phosphazene/triazine-doped ZnO, for comparison | ZnO: Commercial (Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co. Ltd.) Phosphazene/triazine-doped ZnO: Phosphazene/triazine bi-group flame retardant in situ doping of ZnO | N.Av. |
| Chen et al., 2021 | [ | PLA + flame retardant + Ammonium polyphosphate PLA + flame retardant + Ammonium polyphosphate + chain extender | ZnO | Commercial (Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co., Ltd.) | N.Av. |
| Chu et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | ZnO Nano-silver, mixed and for comparison | Commercial (Qingdao nakasen Zinc & Technology Co., Ltd) | Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Cui et al., in press | [ | PLA + acetylbutyl citrate (plasticiser) | ZnO | Commercial (Maikun Chemical Co. Ltd) | Size: 30 ± 5 nm (supplier) |
| da Cruz Faria et al., in press | [ | PLA, film grade | ZnO | Commercial (Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (supplier) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| De Silva et al., 2015 | [ | PLA | ZnO to coat halloysite nanotubes ZnO, for comparison | Solvothermal deposition on halloysite nanotubes, calcination | Size: 2-20 nm (TEM) Zincite structure (XRD) |
| del Campo et al., 2021 | [ | Ecovio polymer, blend of PLA, PBAT and copolyester with Technipol compatibilizer | exp. Nano ZnO exp. Micro ZnO Nano ZnO Micro ZnO | exp. Nano ZnO and exp. Micro ZnO: soft chemistry Nano ZnO: Commercial (Evonik industries) + TT Micro ZnO: Commercial (Asturiana de Cinc S.A.) + TT | exp. Nano ZnO: Diameter ∼56 nm (FE-SEM) exp. Micro ZnO: Shape: star-shaped multidomain (FE-SEM) Size ∼1.5 µm (FE-SEM) Nano ZnO: Diameter ∼20 nm (FE-SEM) Micro ZnO: Shape: hexagonal rods (FE-SEM) Length: 1 µm (FE-SEM) All ZnO fillers: wurtzite hexagonal structure |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
| Ding et al., 2013 | [ | PLA | Titanium ester (NDZ-201)-treated ZnO Silane coupling agent (KH550)-treated ZnO ZnO, untreated, for comparison | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Ding et al., 2013 | [ | PLA | Titanium ester (NDZ-201)-treated ZnO Silane coupling agent (KH550)-treated ZnO ZnO, untreated, for comparison | Surface treatment of ZnO in toluene solution of coating agent (different concentrations) | Shape: spherical (POM) |
| Doumbia et al., 2015 | [ | PLA, fiber grade | Zano 20: untreated ZnO Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane-treated ZnO, for comparison | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Zano 20: Size: around 30 nm (supplier) Wurtzite structure (XRD) Zano 20 Plus: Size: around 30 nm (supplier) Wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Fan et al., 2015 | [ | PLA + tolylene diisocyanate (chain extender) | ZnO Copper chlorophyll acid, mixed | Commercial (Aladdin Chemistry Co., Ltd.) | Size: 30 ± 10 nm (supplier) |
| Ghozali et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO Other fillers, for comparison | Commercial (Merck) | N.Av. |
| Gunathilake et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + carboxymethyl cellulose | ZnO Curcumin extract, mixed | Precipitation | Shape: flower-like structures Size (of each petal): 907 ± 59 nm length, 575 ± 60 nm width (FE-SEM) |
| Heydari-Majd et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + glycerol (plasticiser) | ZnO | Commercial (Nanomaterials Pioneers Company) | Shape: nearly spherical (supplier) Avg. Size: 10-30 nm (supplier) |
| Heydari-Majd et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + glycerol (plasticiser) | ZnO Essential oils, mixed | Commercial (Nanomaterials Pioneers Company) | Shape: nearly spherical (supplier) Size: 10-30 nm (supplier) |
| Huang et al., 2015 | [ | PLA, injection molding grade | ZnO to coat graphene oxide | Precipitation on graphene oxide | Size (of ZnO): 15-30 nm (TEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Huang et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | TEOS-treated and organic-coated monodispersed ZnO (dispersion in dichloromethane) ZnO + CsxWO3 dispersion, for comparison | high-gravity reactive precipitation combined with “inorganic-organic successive layer coating” | Shape: spherical (TEM) Size: 4 nm, monodispersed Hexagonal structure |
| Jamnongkan et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Jayaramudu et al., 2014 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (UNI LAB, Saarchem-holpro Analytic (Pty) Ltd.) | Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Junpha et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + PCL 10 wt% + SBS 10 wt% (for dispersion) | ZnO CNTs, mixed (for conductivity) Cu, for obtaining different CV response | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Shape: rod-like (SEM) Wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Kaur et al., 2014 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Microwave enhanced solvo-thermal hydrolysis | Shape: Water melon (TEM) Size: 2-4 nm (TEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Keshavarzi et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + PP (80:20 wt/wt) | ZnO | Hydrothermal synthesis (with microwave) | Shape: spherical (SEM) Avg. size: 55 nm (SEM) |
| Kim et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | Positively charged ZnO | Solvothermal synthesis | Wurtzite (hexagonal) structure (XRD) |
| Kumar et al., in press | [ | PLA | ZnO | Co-precipitation | Crystallite size: 38 nm (XRD) Wurtzite (hexagonal) structure (XRD) |
| Li et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | ZnO Cinnamaldehyde, mixed and for comparison | Commercial (MaiKun Industrial Co., Ltd.) | Hexagonal structure (?) (XRD) |
| Lim et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO to coat halloysite nanotubes | Seed-mediated growth process on halloysite nanotubes | Shape: hexagonal (TEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Lim et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO to coat halloysite nanotubes Other surface treatments (Sodium dodecyl sulfate) for comparison | Seed-mediated growth process on halloysite nanotubes | Size: ∼13 nm |
| Lizundia et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (L'Urederra technological center) | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Length: 25-85 nm (TEM) Width: 15-30 nm (TEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (WAXD) |
| Lizundia et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (L'Urederra technological center) | Shape: rod-like (supplier) Length: 43 ± 24 nm (supplier) Width: ∼20 nm (supplier) |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
| Lizundia et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO, rod shaped ZnO, spherical | ZnO, rod shaped: Commercial (L'Urederra technological center) ZnO, spherical: Commercial (Plasmachem GmbH) | ZnO, rod shaped: Shape: rod-like (TEM) Length: 43 ± 24 nm (TEM) Width: ∼20 nm (TEM) ZnO, spherical: Shape: spherical (TEM) Diamter: ∼25 nm (TEM) |
| Lu et al., 2021 | [ | PLA + 10 wt% acetylbutyl citrate (plasticiser) | ZnO | Commercial (Qingdao Nagasen Zinc Technology Co., LTD) | Size: 30 ± 5 nm (supplier) |
| Luzi et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO Lignin nanoparticles, mixed (hybrid) and for comparison | Precipitation (?) | ZnO: Size: 50-70 nm (FESEM) ZnO on lignin (hybrids): Size: 100-150 nm (FESEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Marra et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial, spray pyrolysis (Pylote SAS) | Size: 100-500 nm (supplier) Hexagonal structure (WAXD) |
| Marra et al., 2017 | [ | PLA isotactic polypropylene for comparison | ZnO Stearic acid-coated ZnO | ZnO: Commercial, spray pyrolysis (Pylote SAS) Stearic acid-coated ZnO: commercial powder treated in stearic acid solution in isopropanol | ZnO: Size: 250-500 nm (literature) Shape: hexagonal (literature) Stearic acid-coated ZnO: Size: 1-1.2 µm (literature) Shape: spherical (literature) |
| Mizielińska et al., 2018 | [ | PLA, film grade + epoxy functional styrene-acrylate oligomeric chain extender (Joncryl® ADR 4300F) + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20: untreated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: spherical (supplier) Diameter: 20-60 nm (supplier) |
| Mousa et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO dispersion | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (TEM) Average particle size ≤ 40 nm (TEM) |
| Murariu et al., 2011 | [ | PLA, fiber grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20: untreated ZnO Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Zano 20: Size: around 30 nm (supplier) |
| Murariu et al., 2015 | [ | PLA, film grade + epoxy functional styrene-acrylate oligomeric chain extender (Joncryl® ADR 4300F) + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Diameter: 15-30 nm, length: 100 nm (TEM) |
| Murariu et al., 2021 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Diameter: 15-30 nm, length: 100 nm (TEM) |
| Nonato et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO nanofibers | Electrospinning and calcination | Shape: nanofibers Diameter: 170 ± 60 nm (literature) |
| Pantani et al., 2013 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Diameter: 15-30 nm, length: 100 nm (TEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Pérez-Álvarez et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (L'Urederra Technological center) | Length: 43 ± 24 nm (TEM) Width ∼ 15 nm (TEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Pušnik Črešnar et al., 2021 | [ | PLA, >96% l-form | ZnO Other fillers, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (supplier) |
| Pušnik Črešnar et al., 2021 | [ | PLA, | ZnO Other fillers, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (supplier) Wurtzite structure (XRD) Crystallite size: 23 nm (XRD) |
| Qu et al., 2014 | [ | PLA, amorphous | ZnO, small ZnO, large ("organic") | ZnO, small: Commercial, type MKN-ZnO-R040 (MK Impex) ZnO, large: Commercial (Fisher Scientific) | ZnO, small: Avg. diameter: 40 nm ZnO, large: Avg. diameter: 250 nm |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
| Rahman et al., 2018 | [ | PLA PLA + chitosan (2:1 wt/wt) | ZnO | Precipitation/sol-gel | Shape: hexagonal (TEM) Avg. Size: 105 nm (TEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Rashidi et al., 2020 | [ | PLA PLA + 10 wt% triethyl citrate (plasticiser) | ZnO Silver phosphate, mixed and for comparison | N.Av. | Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Restrepo et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | ZnO Polyvinyl alcohol-coated ZnO, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) + solvothermal coating with PVA | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Size < 100 nm (supplier) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Restrepo et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO Polyvinyl alcohol-coated ZnO, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) + solvothermal coating with PVA | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Size < 100 nm (supplier) |
| Ridwan et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Precipitation | N.Av. |
| Rihayat et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + glycerol (plasticiser) | ZnO Chitosan, mixed | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | N.Av. |
| Rihayat et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO Chitosan, mixed | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2014 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Precipitation, microwave assisted | Shape: quasi-spherical (TEM) Size: 8-20 nm (TEM) Avg. Diameter: 12 nm (TEM) Wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | ZnO-graft-poly(D,L-lactide) ZnO for comparison | Precipitation, microwave assisted | ZnO-graft-poly(D,L-lactide): Shape: spherical (literature) Diameter: 12 ± 6 nm (literature) |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Precipitation, microwave assisted | Shape: spherical (literature) Size: 8-20 nm (literature) Diameter: 12 nm (literature) |
| Rokbani et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO Other fillers for comparison | Commercial (SkySpring Nanomaterials Inc. Houston, TX, USA) | Avg. diameter: 20 nm (supplier) |
| Ryu et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO Hexadecyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO | ZnO: Commercial (Nanostructured & Amorphous Materials, Inc.) Hexadecyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO: Treatment on commercial ZnO | Size: ∼20 nm (supplier) |
| Shankar et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Precipitation | Shape: cubic (SEM) Size: 50-100 nm (SEM) Avg. diameter: 56.1 ± 18.6 nm) (SEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Shojaeiarani et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Sol-gel | Shape: spherical (TEM) Size: 28-48 nm (TEM) |
| Singh et al., in press | [ | PLA | ZnO | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Suryanegara et al., 2021 | [ | PLA | ZnO with chitosan (chitosan:ZnO = 10:1) TiO2 with chitosan (chitosan:TiO2 = 10:1), for comparison | ZnO: Commercial (Wako pure chemical industries, Ltd.) ZnO with chitosan: composite film prepared by solvent casting in acetic acid with glutardialdehyde as cross-linker | N.Av. |
| Suryani et al., 2018 | [ | PLA + cellulose acetate | ZnO | N.Av. | Crystallite size: 12.97- 19.01 nm (XRD) |
| Tajdari et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO nanoparticles ZnO nanorods, for comparison TiO2, mixed | Nanoparticles: Commercial (US Research Nanomaterials, Inc. Co.) Nanorods: hydrothermal, microwave assisted | Nanoparticles: Shape: spherical (TEM) Size: 10-30 nm (supplier) Avg. size: 20 nm (TEM) Nanorods: Shape: sharp pointed stras Avg. diameter of each rod: 80 nm (TEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Tang et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + 10 wt% acetylbutyl citrate (plasticiser) | ZnO | Commercial (Qingdao Nakasen Zinc & Technology Co., Ltd) | Hexagonal structure (WAXS) |
| Tarani et al., 2021 | [ | PLA | ZnO Other fillers for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (supplier) |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
| Therias et al., 2012 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (supplier) Size ∼30 nm (supplier) |
| Vasile et al., 2017 | [ | PLA + bio-plasticiser 80:20 wt/wt | Copper-doped ZnO, Zn1-xCuxO, functionalised with silver nanoparticles | Co-precipitation (to produce copper-doped ZnO) followed by treatment in aloe vera extract for Ag | Size: ∼15-24 nm (SEM-TEM) Hexagonal structure plus peaks from Ag (XRD) |
| Virovska et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | Zano 20: untreated ZnO, mixed with expanded graphite (hybrid) Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane-treated ZnO, mixed with fullerene (hybrid) | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Wang et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO on cellulose nanocrystals (hybrids) | Hydrothermal synthesis on cellulose nanocrystals | Hybrids: Shape: sheet-like structure (TEM, FE-SEM) Diameter: 210 ± 10.5 nm Length: 440 ± 22 nm Thickness: 40-80 nm ZnO: Hexagonal wurtzite structure (WAXD) |
| Xu et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | Poly(L-lactide)-grafted (pre-silanised) ZnO | Silanisation and in-situ aminolysis reaction on commercial ZnO (Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co., Ltd., China) | Diameter ∼30 nm (supplier) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (WAXD) |
| Xu et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | Phosphazene/triazine-doped ZnO | Phosphazene/triazine bi-group flame retardant in situ doping of commercial ZnO (Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co. Ltd.) | N.Av. |
| Yin et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | ZnO type HQ-FL20 | Commercial (Shanghai Pei Kun Industry Co. Ltd.) | Shape: spherical (supplier) Size: 20 nm (supplier) |
| Zhang et al., 2009 | [ | PLA + polypropylene + maleic anhydride | Plasma-treated ZnO | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Zhang et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | Zano 20 Plus-3: 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Size: 30 nm (literature) |
| Zhang et al., 2021 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size: 30 nm (supplier) |
| Zheng et al., 2012 | [ | PLA | ZnO (various surface treatments: titanium ester; silane coupling agent; alkylamine) | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Zhou et al., 2016 | [ | PLA, injection molding grade + resorcinol di(phenyl phosphate) (flame retardant) | ZnO to coat kenaf fibers | Precipitation (?) on kenaf fibers | Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
Appendix A. Materials
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ahmed et al., 2016 | [ | PLA + PEG (plasticiser) | ZnO, small ZnO, large Silver-copper nanoparticles, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma-Aldrich®) | ZnO, small: Size < 50 nm (supplier) ZnO, large: Size < 100 nm (supplier) |
| Ahmed et al., 2016 | [ | PLA + PEG (plasticiser) 80/20 | ZnO, small ZnO, large Silver-copper nanoparticles, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma-Aldrich®) | ZnO, small: Size < 50 nm (supplier) ZnO, large: Size < 100 nm (supplier) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Ahmed et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + PCL (1:1 wt/wt) + PEG | Zano 20 Plus-3: 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO Clove essential oil, mixed and for comparison | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | N.Av. |
| Anžlovar et al., 2018 | [ | PLA poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) | ZnO | Seeded polyol method | Size: 20-50 nm |
| Arfat et al., 2017 | [ | PLA + PEG 80/20 | Zano 20 Zano 20 Plus-3: 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO, for comparison | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Zano 20: Size ∼ 30 nm (supplier) Both ZnO fillers: hexagonal (wurtzite) structure (XRD) |
| Bajwa et al., 2021 | [ | PLA | ZnO ZnO blends with cellulose nanocrystals, mixed and for comparison | Sol-gel | Shape: spherical (TEM) Size: 15-65 nm (TEM) |
| Benali et al., 2015 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (literature) Diameter: 15-30 nm (literature) length: 100 nm (literature) |
| Brounstein et al., 2021 | [ | PLA PLA + PEG 90/10 | ZnO TiO2, for comparison | Commercial (Thermo Fisher Scientific) | Size: 80% between 1 and 7 µm (granulometric analysis) |
| Bussiere et al., 2012 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (supplier) Size ∼30 nm (supplier) |
| Chen et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + flame retardant + Ammonium polyphosphate | ZnO Phosphazene/triazine-doped ZnO, for comparison | ZnO: Commercial (Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co. Ltd.) Phosphazene/triazine-doped ZnO: Phosphazene/triazine bi-group flame retardant in situ doping of ZnO | N.Av. |
| Chen et al., 2021 | [ | PLA + flame retardant + Ammonium polyphosphate PLA + flame retardant + Ammonium polyphosphate + chain extender | ZnO | Commercial (Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co., Ltd.) | N.Av. |
| Chu et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | ZnO Nano-silver, mixed and for comparison | Commercial (Qingdao nakasen Zinc & Technology Co., Ltd) | Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Cui et al., in press | [ | PLA + acetylbutyl citrate (plasticiser) | ZnO | Commercial (Maikun Chemical Co. Ltd) | Size: 30 ± 5 nm (supplier) |
| da Cruz Faria et al., in press | [ | PLA, film grade | ZnO | Commercial (Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (supplier) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| De Silva et al., 2015 | [ | PLA | ZnO to coat halloysite nanotubes ZnO, for comparison | Solvothermal deposition on halloysite nanotubes, calcination | Size: 2-20 nm (TEM) Zincite structure (XRD) |
| del Campo et al., 2021 | [ | Ecovio polymer, blend of PLA, PBAT and copolyester with Technipol compatibilizer | exp. Nano ZnO exp. Micro ZnO Nano ZnO Micro ZnO | exp. Nano ZnO and exp. Micro ZnO: soft chemistry Nano ZnO: Commercial (Evonik industries) + TT Micro ZnO: Commercial (Asturiana de Cinc S.A.) + TT | exp. Nano ZnO: Diameter ∼56 nm (FE-SEM) exp. Micro ZnO: Shape: star-shaped multidomain (FE-SEM) Size ∼1.5 µm (FE-SEM) Nano ZnO: Diameter ∼20 nm (FE-SEM) Micro ZnO: Shape: hexagonal rods (FE-SEM) Length: 1 µm (FE-SEM) All ZnO fillers: wurtzite hexagonal structure |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
| Ding et al., 2013 | [ | PLA | Titanium ester (NDZ-201)-treated ZnO Silane coupling agent (KH550)-treated ZnO ZnO, untreated, for comparison | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Ding et al., 2013 | [ | PLA | Titanium ester (NDZ-201)-treated ZnO Silane coupling agent (KH550)-treated ZnO ZnO, untreated, for comparison | Surface treatment of ZnO in toluene solution of coating agent (different concentrations) | Shape: spherical (POM) |
| Doumbia et al., 2015 | [ | PLA, fiber grade | Zano 20: untreated ZnO Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane-treated ZnO, for comparison | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Zano 20: Size: around 30 nm (supplier) Wurtzite structure (XRD) Zano 20 Plus: Size: around 30 nm (supplier) Wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Fan et al., 2015 | [ | PLA + tolylene diisocyanate (chain extender) | ZnO Copper chlorophyll acid, mixed | Commercial (Aladdin Chemistry Co., Ltd.) | Size: 30 ± 10 nm (supplier) |
| Ghozali et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO Other fillers, for comparison | Commercial (Merck) | N.Av. |
| Gunathilake et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + carboxymethyl cellulose | ZnO Curcumin extract, mixed | Precipitation | Shape: flower-like structures Size (of each petal): 907 ± 59 nm length, 575 ± 60 nm width (FE-SEM) |
| Heydari-Majd et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + glycerol (plasticiser) | ZnO | Commercial (Nanomaterials Pioneers Company) | Shape: nearly spherical (supplier) Avg. Size: 10-30 nm (supplier) |
| Heydari-Majd et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + glycerol (plasticiser) | ZnO Essential oils, mixed | Commercial (Nanomaterials Pioneers Company) | Shape: nearly spherical (supplier) Size: 10-30 nm (supplier) |
| Huang et al., 2015 | [ | PLA, injection molding grade | ZnO to coat graphene oxide | Precipitation on graphene oxide | Size (of ZnO): 15-30 nm (TEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Huang et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | TEOS-treated and organic-coated monodispersed ZnO (dispersion in dichloromethane) ZnO + CsxWO3 dispersion, for comparison | high-gravity reactive precipitation combined with “inorganic-organic successive layer coating” | Shape: spherical (TEM) Size: 4 nm, monodispersed Hexagonal structure |
| Jamnongkan et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Jayaramudu et al., 2014 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (UNI LAB, Saarchem-holpro Analytic (Pty) Ltd.) | Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Junpha et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + PCL 10 wt% + SBS 10 wt% (for dispersion) | ZnO CNTs, mixed (for conductivity) Cu, for obtaining different CV response | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Shape: rod-like (SEM) Wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Kaur et al., 2014 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Microwave enhanced solvo-thermal hydrolysis | Shape: Water melon (TEM) Size: 2-4 nm (TEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Keshavarzi et al., 2019 | [ | PLA + PP (80:20 wt/wt) | ZnO | Hydrothermal synthesis (with microwave) | Shape: spherical (SEM) Avg. size: 55 nm (SEM) |
| Kim et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | Positively charged ZnO | Solvothermal synthesis | Wurtzite (hexagonal) structure (XRD) |
| Kumar et al., in press | [ | PLA | ZnO | Co-precipitation | Crystallite size: 38 nm (XRD) Wurtzite (hexagonal) structure (XRD) |
| Li et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | ZnO Cinnamaldehyde, mixed and for comparison | Commercial (MaiKun Industrial Co., Ltd.) | Hexagonal structure (?) (XRD) |
| Lim et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO to coat halloysite nanotubes | Seed-mediated growth process on halloysite nanotubes | Shape: hexagonal (TEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Lim et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO to coat halloysite nanotubes Other surface treatments (Sodium dodecyl sulfate) for comparison | Seed-mediated growth process on halloysite nanotubes | Size: ∼13 nm |
| Lizundia et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (L'Urederra technological center) | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Length: 25-85 nm (TEM) Width: 15-30 nm (TEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (WAXD) |
| Lizundia et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (L'Urederra technological center) | Shape: rod-like (supplier) Length: 43 ± 24 nm (supplier) Width: ∼20 nm (supplier) |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
| Lizundia et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO, rod shaped ZnO, spherical | ZnO, rod shaped: Commercial (L'Urederra technological center) ZnO, spherical: Commercial (Plasmachem GmbH) | ZnO, rod shaped: Shape: rod-like (TEM) Length: 43 ± 24 nm (TEM) Width: ∼20 nm (TEM) ZnO, spherical: Shape: spherical (TEM) Diamter: ∼25 nm (TEM) |
| Lu et al., 2021 | [ | PLA + 10 wt% acetylbutyl citrate (plasticiser) | ZnO | Commercial (Qingdao Nagasen Zinc Technology Co., LTD) | Size: 30 ± 5 nm (supplier) |
| Luzi et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO Lignin nanoparticles, mixed (hybrid) and for comparison | Precipitation (?) | ZnO: Size: 50-70 nm (FESEM) ZnO on lignin (hybrids): Size: 100-150 nm (FESEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Marra et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial, spray pyrolysis (Pylote SAS) | Size: 100-500 nm (supplier) Hexagonal structure (WAXD) |
| Marra et al., 2017 | [ | PLA isotactic polypropylene for comparison | ZnO Stearic acid-coated ZnO | ZnO: Commercial, spray pyrolysis (Pylote SAS) Stearic acid-coated ZnO: commercial powder treated in stearic acid solution in isopropanol | ZnO: Size: 250-500 nm (literature) Shape: hexagonal (literature) Stearic acid-coated ZnO: Size: 1-1.2 µm (literature) Shape: spherical (literature) |
| Mizielińska et al., 2018 | [ | PLA, film grade + epoxy functional styrene-acrylate oligomeric chain extender (Joncryl® ADR 4300F) + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20: untreated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: spherical (supplier) Diameter: 20-60 nm (supplier) |
| Mousa et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO dispersion | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (TEM) Average particle size ≤ 40 nm (TEM) |
| Murariu et al., 2011 | [ | PLA, fiber grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20: untreated ZnO Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Zano 20: Size: around 30 nm (supplier) |
| Murariu et al., 2015 | [ | PLA, film grade + epoxy functional styrene-acrylate oligomeric chain extender (Joncryl® ADR 4300F) + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Diameter: 15-30 nm, length: 100 nm (TEM) |
| Murariu et al., 2021 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Diameter: 15-30 nm, length: 100 nm (TEM) |
| Nonato et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO nanofibers | Electrospinning and calcination | Shape: nanofibers Diameter: 170 ± 60 nm (literature) |
| Pantani et al., 2013 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Diameter: 15-30 nm, length: 100 nm (TEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Pérez-Álvarez et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (L'Urederra Technological center) | Length: 43 ± 24 nm (TEM) Width ∼ 15 nm (TEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Pušnik Črešnar et al., 2021 | [ | PLA, >96% l-form | ZnO Other fillers, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (supplier) |
| Pušnik Črešnar et al., 2021 | [ | PLA, | ZnO Other fillers, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (supplier) Wurtzite structure (XRD) Crystallite size: 23 nm (XRD) |
| Qu et al., 2014 | [ | PLA, amorphous | ZnO, small ZnO, large ("organic") | ZnO, small: Commercial, type MKN-ZnO-R040 (MK Impex) ZnO, large: Commercial (Fisher Scientific) | ZnO, small: Avg. diameter: 40 nm ZnO, large: Avg. diameter: 250 nm |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
| Rahman et al., 2018 | [ | PLA PLA + chitosan (2:1 wt/wt) | ZnO | Precipitation/sol-gel | Shape: hexagonal (TEM) Avg. Size: 105 nm (TEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Rashidi et al., 2020 | [ | PLA PLA + 10 wt% triethyl citrate (plasticiser) | ZnO Silver phosphate, mixed and for comparison | N.Av. | Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Restrepo et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | ZnO Polyvinyl alcohol-coated ZnO, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) + solvothermal coating with PVA | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Size < 100 nm (supplier) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Restrepo et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO Polyvinyl alcohol-coated ZnO, for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) + solvothermal coating with PVA | Shape: rod-like (TEM) Size < 100 nm (supplier) |
| Ridwan et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Precipitation | N.Av. |
| Rihayat et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + glycerol (plasticiser) | ZnO Chitosan, mixed | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | N.Av. |
| Rihayat et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO Chitosan, mixed | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2014 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Precipitation, microwave assisted | Shape: quasi-spherical (TEM) Size: 8-20 nm (TEM) Avg. Diameter: 12 nm (TEM) Wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | ZnO-graft-poly(D,L-lactide) ZnO for comparison | Precipitation, microwave assisted | ZnO-graft-poly(D,L-lactide): Shape: spherical (literature) Diameter: 12 ± 6 nm (literature) |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Precipitation, microwave assisted | Shape: spherical (literature) Size: 8-20 nm (literature) Diameter: 12 nm (literature) |
| Rokbani et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO Other fillers for comparison | Commercial (SkySpring Nanomaterials Inc. Houston, TX, USA) | Avg. diameter: 20 nm (supplier) |
| Ryu et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO Hexadecyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO | ZnO: Commercial (Nanostructured & Amorphous Materials, Inc.) Hexadecyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO: Treatment on commercial ZnO | Size: ∼20 nm (supplier) |
| Shankar et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Precipitation | Shape: cubic (SEM) Size: 50-100 nm (SEM) Avg. diameter: 56.1 ± 18.6 nm) (SEM) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Shojaeiarani et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Sol-gel | Shape: spherical (TEM) Size: 28-48 nm (TEM) |
| Singh et al., in press | [ | PLA | ZnO | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Suryanegara et al., 2021 | [ | PLA | ZnO with chitosan (chitosan:ZnO = 10:1) TiO2 with chitosan (chitosan:TiO2 = 10:1), for comparison | ZnO: Commercial (Wako pure chemical industries, Ltd.) ZnO with chitosan: composite film prepared by solvent casting in acetic acid with glutardialdehyde as cross-linker | N.Av. |
| Suryani et al., 2018 | [ | PLA + cellulose acetate | ZnO | N.Av. | Crystallite size: 12.97- 19.01 nm (XRD) |
| Tajdari et al., 2020 | [ | PLA | ZnO nanoparticles ZnO nanorods, for comparison TiO2, mixed | Nanoparticles: Commercial (US Research Nanomaterials, Inc. Co.) Nanorods: hydrothermal, microwave assisted | Nanoparticles: Shape: spherical (TEM) Size: 10-30 nm (supplier) Avg. size: 20 nm (TEM) Nanorods: Shape: sharp pointed stras Avg. diameter of each rod: 80 nm (TEM) Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Tang et al., 2020 | [ | PLA + 10 wt% acetylbutyl citrate (plasticiser) | ZnO | Commercial (Qingdao Nakasen Zinc & Technology Co., Ltd) | Hexagonal structure (WAXS) |
| Tarani et al., 2021 | [ | PLA | ZnO Other fillers for comparison | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size < 100 nm (supplier) |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Matrix | Kind of ZnO filler | ZnO synthesis | ZnO properties |
| Therias et al., 2012 | [ | PLA, film grade + Ultranox 626A (thermal stabiliser) | Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Shape: rod-like (supplier) Size ∼30 nm (supplier) |
| Vasile et al., 2017 | [ | PLA + bio-plasticiser 80:20 wt/wt | Copper-doped ZnO, Zn1-xCuxO, functionalised with silver nanoparticles | Co-precipitation (to produce copper-doped ZnO) followed by treatment in aloe vera extract for Ag | Size: ∼15-24 nm (SEM-TEM) Hexagonal structure plus peaks from Ag (XRD) |
| Virovska et al., 2016 | [ | PLA | Zano 20: untreated ZnO, mixed with expanded graphite (hybrid) Zano 20 Plus: Triethoxy caprylylsilane-treated ZnO, mixed with fullerene (hybrid) | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Hexagonal wurtzite structure (XRD) |
| Wang et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | ZnO on cellulose nanocrystals (hybrids) | Hydrothermal synthesis on cellulose nanocrystals | Hybrids: Shape: sheet-like structure (TEM, FE-SEM) Diameter: 210 ± 10.5 nm Length: 440 ± 22 nm Thickness: 40-80 nm ZnO: Hexagonal wurtzite structure (WAXD) |
| Xu et al., 2018 | [ | PLA | Poly(L-lactide)-grafted (pre-silanised) ZnO | Silanisation and in-situ aminolysis reaction on commercial ZnO (Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co., Ltd., China) | Diameter ∼30 nm (supplier) Hexagonal wurtzite structure (WAXD) |
| Xu et al., 2019 | [ | PLA | Phosphazene/triazine-doped ZnO | Phosphazene/triazine bi-group flame retardant in situ doping of commercial ZnO (Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co. Ltd.) | N.Av. |
| Yin et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | ZnO type HQ-FL20 | Commercial (Shanghai Pei Kun Industry Co. Ltd.) | Shape: spherical (supplier) Size: 20 nm (supplier) |
| Zhang et al., 2009 | [ | PLA + polypropylene + maleic anhydride | Plasma-treated ZnO | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Zhang et al., 2017 | [ | PLA | Zano 20 Plus-3: 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane-treated ZnO | Commercial (Umicore Zinc Chemicals) | Size: 30 nm (literature) |
| Zhang et al., 2021 | [ | PLA | ZnO | Commercial (Sigma Aldrich®) | Size: 30 nm (supplier) |
| Zheng et al., 2012 | [ | PLA | ZnO (various surface treatments: titanium ester; silane coupling agent; alkylamine) | N.Av. | N.Av. |
| Zhou et al., 2016 | [ | PLA, injection molding grade + resorcinol di(phenyl phosphate) (flame retardant) | ZnO to coat kenaf fibers | Precipitation (?) on kenaf fibers | Hexagonal structure (XRD) |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ahmed et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.5-1-2-4 wt% (single filler) | Food packaging (thermal properties) |
| Ahmed et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.5-1-2-4 wt% (single filler) | Food packaging (mechanical properties) |
| Ahmed et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 3 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (combined action of different antibacterial compounds) |
| Anžlovar et al., 2018 | [ | Melt compounding in micro-extruder (previous dispersion of ZnO in methanol and coating on polymer pellets) | Jet molding | 1-10 wt% per hundred resin | Fundamental study (Degradation by melt compounding with fillers) |
| Arfat et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 2.5-5-7.5-10% wt./wt. | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of silane treatment) |
| Bajwa et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform Masterbatching | Sheets, extrusion in TSE (two-step process) | 1.5-2.5 wt% (+ CNC) | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Benali et al., 2015 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in turbo-mixer) | Films, film extrusion in SSE (two-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | "Durable" applications (fundamental study about retarding degradation) |
| Brounstein et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Filaments for FFF, extrusion (two-step process) | 10-20-30 wt% | New materials for 3D printing |
| Bussiere et al., 2012 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in turbo-mixer) | Films, film extrusion in micro-TSE (two-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | Fundamental study (crystallization) |
| Chen et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in torque rheometer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 1 wt% (either undoped or doped ZnO) | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Chen et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in torque rheometer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 1 wt% | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Chu et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-3 wt% (+ nano-silver) | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of ZnO/silver nanoparticles) |
| Cui et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane + high pressure on vacuum bag | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | (25:1000)-(50:1000)-(100:1000) ZnO:PLA wt/wt | Food packaging (effect of high-pressure treatment on feddstock suspension) |
| da Cruz Faria et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in SSE (pre-blending) | Films, film extrusion in SSE (single-step process) | 0.1-0.25-0.3-0.5 wt% | Fundamental study (crystallization and properties of PLA) |
| De Silva et al., 2015 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | N.Ap. | Packaging (surface functionalisation of halloysite nanotubes) |
| del Campo et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 2 wt% | Fundamental study (Degradation of Ecovio with fillers) |
| Ding et al., 2013 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.5-1-3-5 wt%, untreated ZnO 1 wt% to compare different fillers | Fundamental study (effect of different surface treatments) |
| Ding et al., 2013 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 1 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of different surface treatments) |
| Doumbia et al., 2015 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in turbo-mixer) Masterbatching | Fibers, melt spinning (two-step process) | 1-3 wt% (either treated or untreated ZnO) | Antibacterial textiles |
| Fan et al., 2015 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform Masterbatching | Stripes, extrusion in TSE (pre-mixed masterbatch + neat PLA) and stretching in cold water (two-step process) | 1.2% | Fundamental study (effect of chain extender) |
| Ghozali et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.1-0.2-0.5-1.0-2.0 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| eference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
| Gunathilake et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 8 wt% (+ curcumin) | Stimuli-responsive drug delivery system |
| Heydari-Majd et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1.5 wt% per hundred PLA | Antibacterial food packaging (Zn release into food simulants) |
| Heydari-Majd et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1.5 wt% per hundred PLA (+ essential oils) | Antibacterial food packaging (combined action of ZnO and essential oils) |
| Huang et al., 2015 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, automatic coating machine (single-step process) | N.Ap. | Fundamental study (general properties) |
| Huang et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | various | Fundamental study (optical properties) |
| Jamnongkan et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 3 wt% | Fundamental study (general properties) |
| Jayaramudu et al., 2014 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 2-4-6 wt% per hundred resin | Fundamental study (general properties) |
| Junpha et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Filaments for FFF, extrusion (two-step process) | 5 wt% (+ CNTs) | Filaments for 3D-printed artificial tongue |
| Kaur et al., 2014 | [ | In-situ ZnO-catalysed ring opening polymerization of l-lactide | N.Ap. | 0.5 to 10%, most frequent: 2% | Fundamental study (single-step composites by ZnO-catalysed ring opening polymerization of l-lactide) |
| Keshavarzi et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | N.Ap. | 1-3-5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect on chain/structural elasticity of PLA-PP blends) |
| Kim et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, bar-coating (single-step process) | 0.5-1-3-5-10 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (role of surface charge) |
| Kumar et al., in press | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending with linseed oil) | Filaments for FFF, extrusion (single-step process) + PRINTING | 1-2 wt% | Filaments for 3D-printed biosensors |
| Li et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-3 wt% (+ cinnamaldehyde) | Antibacterial food packaging (impact on quality attributes of cut apples) |
| Lim et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | N.Ap. | Fundamental study (UV-shielding and weathering) |
| Lim et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | N.Ap. | Food packaging (Fundamental study: UV-and light-shielding) |
| Lizundia et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.05-0.1-0.2-0.5-1-2-5 wt% | Food packaging (disposable polymers - effect of ZnO on thermal and hydrolytic degradation) |
| Lizundia et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.25-1-5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of ZnO on PLA aging) |
| Lizundia et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.2-0.5-1-5-10 wt% | Food packaging (effect of ZnO morphology on relaxation and transport properties of PLA) |
| Lu et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in methylene chloride | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0-1-3-5-7-9-15 wt% | Food packaging (migration of Zn into food simulants) |
| Luzi et al., 2020 | [ | Melt compounding in micro-extruder | Films, film extrusion in micro-extruder (single-step process) | 0.5 wt% (+ lignin) | Green composites (ZnO-lignin hybrids) |
| Marra et al., 2016 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE Masterbatching | Films, film extrusion in SSE (two-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| Marra et al., 2017 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | N.Ap. | 5 wt% (either treated or untreated ZnO) | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of ZnO surface treatment on PLA-PP blends) |
| Mizielińska et al., 2018 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in intensive mixer) Masterbatching | Films, film extrusion in SSE, experimetal apparatus for multi-layer films (two-step process) | 1 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (UV aging) |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
| Mousa et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Coating, dip coating (on Mg alloy substrates) | 5-10 wt% per hundred coating | Antibacterial coating on Mg alloy to slow dissolution kinetics, biomedical |
| Murariu et al., 2011 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer (kneader) for compression molded plates Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in intensive mixer) for film extrusion Melt compounding in TSE for melt spinning of fibers | Plates, compression molding (two-step process) Films, film extrusion in micro-TSE (two-step process) Fibers, melt spinning (two-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | Films and fibers with special end-use properties |
| Murariu et al., 2015 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in intensive mixer) | Films, film extrusion in SSE (two-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of chain extender) |
| Murariu et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE Masterbatching Conventional method for comparison | Films, film extrusion in SSE (two-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | Fundamental study (masterbatching to limit PLA degradation) |
| Nonato et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solution casting 3D printing | 1 wt% | New materials for 3D printing |
| Pantani et al., 2013 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Films, film extrusion in micro-TSE (two-step process) | 0.5-1-2-3 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (water vapor barrier properties) |
| Pérez-Álvarez et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform, precipitation in an excess of cold methanol | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 1 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (Hydrolysis) |
| Pušnik Črešnar et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Plates, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.5-1-2.5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of fillers on crystallization kinetics of PLA) |
| Pušnik Črešnar et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Plates, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.5-1-2.5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of fillers on surface and functional properties of PLA) |
| Qu et al., 2014 | [ | Melt compounding in micro-extruder (pre-mixing) | N.Ap. | around 20 wt% | Fundamental study (fast hydrolysis catalysed by ZnO) |
| Rahman et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | Fundamental study (general properties) |
| Rashidi et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 2-4 wt% | Fundamental study (crystallization and properties of PLA with ZnO and silver phosphate) |
| Restrepo et al., 2017 | [ | Melt compounding | Plates, compression molding (two-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% (either treated or untreated ZnO) | Packaging (polyvinyl alcohol-stabilised ZnO) |
| Restrepo et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (polyvinyl alcohol-stabilised ZnO) |
| Ridwan et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Coating, film lab applicator (on white craft paper) | 0.5-2-3.5 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| Rihayat et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, print molding (single-step process) | 1-2-3% (+ chitosan) | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| Rihayat et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-2-3-4% (+ chitosan) | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of ZnO with chitosan on PLA thermal stability) |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2014 | [ | Solvent mixing in 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol for electrospinning; PLA dissolved in trifluoroethanol and ZnO dispersed in methanol for electrospinning + electrospraying | Fibrous mats, electrospinning or electrospinning + electrospraying (single-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial wound dressing |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol | Fibrous mats, electrospinning | 1-3-5 wt% per hundred resin (either untreated or treated ZnO) | Antibacterial wound dressing |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol for electrospinning; PLA dissolved in trifluoroethanol and ZnO dispersed in methanol for electrospinning + electrospraying | Fibrous mats, electrospinning or electrospinning + electrospraying (single-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% per hundred resin | Filtering media |
| Rokbani et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing (three methods: in TFE; in chloroform; in 50:50 v/v mixture of DCM and TFE) | Fiber webs, electrospinning (single-step process) | 0.4-0.8-1-3-5% wt/wt | Food packaging, Fundamental study (rheology of PLA suspensions with metal-oxide nanoparticles) |
| Ryu et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform and acetone (volume ratio of 3:1) | Fibers, electrospinning (single-step process) | 0.1-0.3-0.5 wt% per hundred resin (either treated or untreated ZnO) | Fundamental study (hydrophobicity of ultrafine fibers) |
| Shankar et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.5-1.0-1.5 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (barrier properties) |
| Shojaeiarani et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Injection molding | 0.5-1-1.5 wt% | Fundamental study (crystallization and properties of PLA) |
| Singh et al., in press | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Filaments for FFF, extrusion (single-step process) + PRINTING | 2 wt% | New materials for 3D printing |
| Suryanegara et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in acetone | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1 part of each (10:1) composite film every 40 parts PLA | Antimicrobial bioplastic (combined action of chitosan and metal oxides) |
| Suryani et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing (PLA and cellulose acetate dissolved in chloroform, ZnO dispersed in dimethylformamide + acetone) | Coating, spin coating (on glass) | N.Av. | Fundamental study (hydrophobic properties) |
| Tajdari et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 3-5-7-10 wt% (either nanoparticle or nanorods) 7 wt% ZnO-TiO2 mixtures | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of ZnO synthesis/geometry and TiO2) |
| Tang et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-3-5-7-9-15 wt% | Food packaging (barrier properties) |
| Tarani et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | N.Ap. | 1 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging Fundamental study (cold-crystallization and thermal degradation) |
| Therias et al., 2012 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Films, film extrusion in micro-TSE (two-step process) | 0.5-1-2-3 wt% | Fundamental study (photodegradation of PLA) |
| Vasile et al., 2017 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets and films, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.5-1-1.5 wt% (of hybrid) | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of copper-doped ZnO functionalised with silver nanoparticles) |
| Virovska et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing for electrospraying the composite coatings on neat PLA fibers: PLA acting as glue dissolved in chloroform; fillers dispersed in DMF, for ZnO + expanded graphite; fillers dispersed in toluene, for ZnO + fullerene | Coated mats, electrospinning of PLA + electrospraying of filler suspensions (single-step process) | 20% w/v of ZnO and varying amounts of expanded graphite for mixed coatings with expanded graphite; 10% w/v of ZnO and varying amounts of fullerene, for mixed coatings with fullerene | Self-cleaning materials |
| Wang et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 3-5-10-15 wt% (of hybrid) per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (biodegradability, UV protection) |
| Xu et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.5-1-3-5 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (Rapid crystallizing and nonleaching properties) |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
| Xu et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in torque rheometer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 1-5-10 wt% | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Yin et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in methylene chloride | Films, automatic scraping film machine (single-step process) | 2-4-6-8-10 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| Zhang et al., 2009 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Fibers, melt spinning (two-step process) | 0.3-0.7-1 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of plasma surface treatment; PLA crystallization) |
| Zhang et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in ethyl acetate | Coating, film lab applicator (on white craft paper) | 0.5-1-3 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (coating on paper for "critical" food packaging) |
| Zhang et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane and N, N-dimethylformamide (volume ratio of 7:3) | Fibrous membranes, electrospinning (single step process) | 0.25-0.5-0.75-1 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (role of sonication) |
| Zheng et al., 2012 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.2-0.5-1-2-5 wt%, untreated ZnO 0.5 wt% to compare different surface treatments | Fundamental study (effect of filler loading and surface treatment on tensile and impact strength) |
| Zhou et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform + melt compounding in micro-extruder (two times) | Micro-injection molding | N.Ap. | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Abbreviations: | FFF, fused filament fabrication; SSE, single screw extruder; TSE, twin-screw extruder | ||||
Appendix B. Compounding and manufacturing
| Reference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ahmed et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.5-1-2-4 wt% (single filler) | Food packaging (thermal properties) |
| Ahmed et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.5-1-2-4 wt% (single filler) | Food packaging (mechanical properties) |
| Ahmed et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 3 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (combined action of different antibacterial compounds) |
| Anžlovar et al., 2018 | [ | Melt compounding in micro-extruder (previous dispersion of ZnO in methanol and coating on polymer pellets) | Jet molding | 1-10 wt% per hundred resin | Fundamental study (Degradation by melt compounding with fillers) |
| Arfat et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 2.5-5-7.5-10% wt./wt. | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of silane treatment) |
| Bajwa et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform Masterbatching | Sheets, extrusion in TSE (two-step process) | 1.5-2.5 wt% (+ CNC) | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Benali et al., 2015 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in turbo-mixer) | Films, film extrusion in SSE (two-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | "Durable" applications (fundamental study about retarding degradation) |
| Brounstein et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Filaments for FFF, extrusion (two-step process) | 10-20-30 wt% | New materials for 3D printing |
| Bussiere et al., 2012 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in turbo-mixer) | Films, film extrusion in micro-TSE (two-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | Fundamental study (crystallization) |
| Chen et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in torque rheometer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 1 wt% (either undoped or doped ZnO) | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Chen et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in torque rheometer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 1 wt% | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Chu et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-3 wt% (+ nano-silver) | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of ZnO/silver nanoparticles) |
| Cui et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane + high pressure on vacuum bag | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | (25:1000)-(50:1000)-(100:1000) ZnO:PLA wt/wt | Food packaging (effect of high-pressure treatment on feddstock suspension) |
| da Cruz Faria et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in SSE (pre-blending) | Films, film extrusion in SSE (single-step process) | 0.1-0.25-0.3-0.5 wt% | Fundamental study (crystallization and properties of PLA) |
| De Silva et al., 2015 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | N.Ap. | Packaging (surface functionalisation of halloysite nanotubes) |
| del Campo et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 2 wt% | Fundamental study (Degradation of Ecovio with fillers) |
| Ding et al., 2013 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.5-1-3-5 wt%, untreated ZnO 1 wt% to compare different fillers | Fundamental study (effect of different surface treatments) |
| Ding et al., 2013 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 1 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of different surface treatments) |
| Doumbia et al., 2015 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in turbo-mixer) Masterbatching | Fibers, melt spinning (two-step process) | 1-3 wt% (either treated or untreated ZnO) | Antibacterial textiles |
| Fan et al., 2015 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform Masterbatching | Stripes, extrusion in TSE (pre-mixed masterbatch + neat PLA) and stretching in cold water (two-step process) | 1.2% | Fundamental study (effect of chain extender) |
| Ghozali et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.1-0.2-0.5-1.0-2.0 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| eference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
| Gunathilake et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 8 wt% (+ curcumin) | Stimuli-responsive drug delivery system |
| Heydari-Majd et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1.5 wt% per hundred PLA | Antibacterial food packaging (Zn release into food simulants) |
| Heydari-Majd et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1.5 wt% per hundred PLA (+ essential oils) | Antibacterial food packaging (combined action of ZnO and essential oils) |
| Huang et al., 2015 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, automatic coating machine (single-step process) | N.Ap. | Fundamental study (general properties) |
| Huang et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | various | Fundamental study (optical properties) |
| Jamnongkan et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 3 wt% | Fundamental study (general properties) |
| Jayaramudu et al., 2014 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 2-4-6 wt% per hundred resin | Fundamental study (general properties) |
| Junpha et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Filaments for FFF, extrusion (two-step process) | 5 wt% (+ CNTs) | Filaments for 3D-printed artificial tongue |
| Kaur et al., 2014 | [ | In-situ ZnO-catalysed ring opening polymerization of l-lactide | N.Ap. | 0.5 to 10%, most frequent: 2% | Fundamental study (single-step composites by ZnO-catalysed ring opening polymerization of l-lactide) |
| Keshavarzi et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | N.Ap. | 1-3-5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect on chain/structural elasticity of PLA-PP blends) |
| Kim et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, bar-coating (single-step process) | 0.5-1-3-5-10 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (role of surface charge) |
| Kumar et al., in press | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending with linseed oil) | Filaments for FFF, extrusion (single-step process) + PRINTING | 1-2 wt% | Filaments for 3D-printed biosensors |
| Li et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-3 wt% (+ cinnamaldehyde) | Antibacterial food packaging (impact on quality attributes of cut apples) |
| Lim et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | N.Ap. | Fundamental study (UV-shielding and weathering) |
| Lim et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | N.Ap. | Food packaging (Fundamental study: UV-and light-shielding) |
| Lizundia et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.05-0.1-0.2-0.5-1-2-5 wt% | Food packaging (disposable polymers - effect of ZnO on thermal and hydrolytic degradation) |
| Lizundia et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.25-1-5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of ZnO on PLA aging) |
| Lizundia et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.2-0.5-1-5-10 wt% | Food packaging (effect of ZnO morphology on relaxation and transport properties of PLA) |
| Lu et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in methylene chloride | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0-1-3-5-7-9-15 wt% | Food packaging (migration of Zn into food simulants) |
| Luzi et al., 2020 | [ | Melt compounding in micro-extruder | Films, film extrusion in micro-extruder (single-step process) | 0.5 wt% (+ lignin) | Green composites (ZnO-lignin hybrids) |
| Marra et al., 2016 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE Masterbatching | Films, film extrusion in SSE (two-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| Marra et al., 2017 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | N.Ap. | 5 wt% (either treated or untreated ZnO) | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of ZnO surface treatment on PLA-PP blends) |
| Mizielińska et al., 2018 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in intensive mixer) Masterbatching | Films, film extrusion in SSE, experimetal apparatus for multi-layer films (two-step process) | 1 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (UV aging) |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
| Mousa et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Coating, dip coating (on Mg alloy substrates) | 5-10 wt% per hundred coating | Antibacterial coating on Mg alloy to slow dissolution kinetics, biomedical |
| Murariu et al., 2011 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer (kneader) for compression molded plates Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in intensive mixer) for film extrusion Melt compounding in TSE for melt spinning of fibers | Plates, compression molding (two-step process) Films, film extrusion in micro-TSE (two-step process) Fibers, melt spinning (two-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | Films and fibers with special end-use properties |
| Murariu et al., 2015 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE (pre-blending in intensive mixer) | Films, film extrusion in SSE (two-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of chain extender) |
| Murariu et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE Masterbatching Conventional method for comparison | Films, film extrusion in SSE (two-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | Fundamental study (masterbatching to limit PLA degradation) |
| Nonato et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solution casting 3D printing | 1 wt% | New materials for 3D printing |
| Pantani et al., 2013 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Films, film extrusion in micro-TSE (two-step process) | 0.5-1-2-3 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (water vapor barrier properties) |
| Pérez-Álvarez et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform, precipitation in an excess of cold methanol | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 1 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (Hydrolysis) |
| Pušnik Črešnar et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Plates, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.5-1-2.5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of fillers on crystallization kinetics of PLA) |
| Pušnik Črešnar et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Plates, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.5-1-2.5 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of fillers on surface and functional properties of PLA) |
| Qu et al., 2014 | [ | Melt compounding in micro-extruder (pre-mixing) | N.Ap. | around 20 wt% | Fundamental study (fast hydrolysis catalysed by ZnO) |
| Rahman et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-2-3 wt% | Fundamental study (general properties) |
| Rashidi et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 2-4 wt% | Fundamental study (crystallization and properties of PLA with ZnO and silver phosphate) |
| Restrepo et al., 2017 | [ | Melt compounding | Plates, compression molding (two-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% (either treated or untreated ZnO) | Packaging (polyvinyl alcohol-stabilised ZnO) |
| Restrepo et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Films, compression molding (two-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (polyvinyl alcohol-stabilised ZnO) |
| Ridwan et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Coating, film lab applicator (on white craft paper) | 0.5-2-3.5 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| Rihayat et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, print molding (single-step process) | 1-2-3% (+ chitosan) | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| Rihayat et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-2-3-4% (+ chitosan) | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of ZnO with chitosan on PLA thermal stability) |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2014 | [ | Solvent mixing in 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol for electrospinning; PLA dissolved in trifluoroethanol and ZnO dispersed in methanol for electrospinning + electrospraying | Fibrous mats, electrospinning or electrospinning + electrospraying (single-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial wound dressing |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol | Fibrous mats, electrospinning | 1-3-5 wt% per hundred resin (either untreated or treated ZnO) | Antibacterial wound dressing |
| Rodríguez-Tobías et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol for electrospinning; PLA dissolved in trifluoroethanol and ZnO dispersed in methanol for electrospinning + electrospraying | Fibrous mats, electrospinning or electrospinning + electrospraying (single-step process) | 1-3-5 wt% per hundred resin | Filtering media |
| Rokbani et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing (three methods: in TFE; in chloroform; in 50:50 v/v mixture of DCM and TFE) | Fiber webs, electrospinning (single-step process) | 0.4-0.8-1-3-5% wt/wt | Food packaging, Fundamental study (rheology of PLA suspensions with metal-oxide nanoparticles) |
| Ryu et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform and acetone (volume ratio of 3:1) | Fibers, electrospinning (single-step process) | 0.1-0.3-0.5 wt% per hundred resin (either treated or untreated ZnO) | Fundamental study (hydrophobicity of ultrafine fibers) |
| Shankar et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.5-1.0-1.5 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (barrier properties) |
| Shojaeiarani et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Injection molding | 0.5-1-1.5 wt% | Fundamental study (crystallization and properties of PLA) |
| Singh et al., in press | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Filaments for FFF, extrusion (single-step process) + PRINTING | 2 wt% | New materials for 3D printing |
| Suryanegara et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in acetone | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1 part of each (10:1) composite film every 40 parts PLA | Antimicrobial bioplastic (combined action of chitosan and metal oxides) |
| Suryani et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing (PLA and cellulose acetate dissolved in chloroform, ZnO dispersed in dimethylformamide + acetone) | Coating, spin coating (on glass) | N.Av. | Fundamental study (hydrophobic properties) |
| Tajdari et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 3-5-7-10 wt% (either nanoparticle or nanorods) 7 wt% ZnO-TiO2 mixtures | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of ZnO synthesis/geometry and TiO2) |
| Tang et al., 2020 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 1-3-5-7-9-15 wt% | Food packaging (barrier properties) |
| Tarani et al., 2021 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | N.Ap. | 1 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging Fundamental study (cold-crystallization and thermal degradation) |
| Therias et al., 2012 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Films, film extrusion in micro-TSE (two-step process) | 0.5-1-2-3 wt% | Fundamental study (photodegradation of PLA) |
| Vasile et al., 2017 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets and films, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.5-1-1.5 wt% (of hybrid) | Antibacterial food packaging (effect of copper-doped ZnO functionalised with silver nanoparticles) |
| Virovska et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing for electrospraying the composite coatings on neat PLA fibers: PLA acting as glue dissolved in chloroform; fillers dispersed in DMF, for ZnO + expanded graphite; fillers dispersed in toluene, for ZnO + fullerene | Coated mats, electrospinning of PLA + electrospraying of filler suspensions (single-step process) | 20% w/v of ZnO and varying amounts of expanded graphite for mixed coatings with expanded graphite; 10% w/v of ZnO and varying amounts of fullerene, for mixed coatings with fullerene | Self-cleaning materials |
| Wang et al., 2019 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 3-5-10-15 wt% (of hybrid) per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (biodegradability, UV protection) |
| Xu et al., 2018 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform | Films, solvent casting (single-step process) | 0.5-1-3-5 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (Rapid crystallizing and nonleaching properties) |
| Reference | Empty Cell | Composite compounding | Composite manufacturing | ZnO loading | Application |
| Xu et al., 2019 | [ | Melt compounding in torque rheometer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 1-5-10 wt% | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Yin et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in methylene chloride | Films, automatic scraping film machine (single-step process) | 2-4-6-8-10 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (general properties) |
| Zhang et al., 2009 | [ | Melt compounding in TSE | Fibers, melt spinning (two-step process) | 0.3-0.7-1 wt% | Fundamental study (effect of plasma surface treatment; PLA crystallization) |
| Zhang et al., 2017 | [ | Solvent mixing in ethyl acetate | Coating, film lab applicator (on white craft paper) | 0.5-1-3 wt% per hundred resin | Antibacterial food packaging (coating on paper for "critical" food packaging) |
| Zhang et al., 2021 | [ | Solvent mixing in dichloromethane and N, N-dimethylformamide (volume ratio of 7:3) | Fibrous membranes, electrospinning (single step process) | 0.25-0.5-0.75-1 wt% | Antibacterial food packaging (role of sonication) |
| Zheng et al., 2012 | [ | Melt compounding in mixer | Sheets, compression molding (two-step process) | 0.2-0.5-1-2-5 wt%, untreated ZnO 0.5 wt% to compare different surface treatments | Fundamental study (effect of filler loading and surface treatment on tensile and impact strength) |
| Zhou et al., 2016 | [ | Solvent mixing in chloroform + melt compounding in micro-extruder (two times) | Micro-injection molding | N.Ap. | Fundamental study (improved flame retardancy) |
| Abbreviations: | FFF, fused filament fabrication; SSE, single screw extruder; TSE, twin-screw extruder | ||||
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