J. Mater. Sci. Technol. ›› 2021, Vol. 94: 196-215.DOI: 10.1016/j.jmst.2021.03.058
• Research Article • Previous Articles Next Articles
Alireza Nouria,b,*(
), Anahita Rohani Shirvanc, Yuncang Lia, Cuie Wena,*()
Received:2021-01-18
Revised:2021-03-12
Accepted:2021-03-13
Published:2021-05-20
Online:2021-05-20
Contact:
Alireza Nouri,Cuie Wen
About author:cuie.wen@rmit.edu.au (C. Wen).Alireza Nouri, Anahita Rohani Shirvan, Yuncang Li, Cuie Wen. Additive manufacturing of metallic and polymeric load-bearing biomaterials using laser powder bed fusion: A review[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2021, 94: 196-215.
Fig. 1. Schematic setup of L-PBF additive manufacturing technique.
| Method | Materials | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|---|
| SLS | Polymers (e.g., PA12, PEEK, PCL, PMMA); Metals; Ceramics | •High dimensional accuracy •Flexibility in the type of materials •Easy modification and design changes •Elimination of any post-curing •Best mechanical properties and less anisotropy | •Rough surfaces •Poor reusability of un-sintered powder •Shrinkage and warping due to the thermal distortion •The strength of the part is weaker in the Z-direction than in the other •The price of machinery is expensive |
| SLM | Metals | •No distinct binder and melt phases •Producing fully dense parts in a direct way •Elimination of some post-treatments | •Not suitable for well-controlled composites •Expensive laser and longer build times •Melt pool instabilities and higher residual stress |
| DMLS | Metals | •High speed •Complex geometries •High quality (high accuracy and detailed resolution) •Good static mechanical properties •Medium surface roughness with good biological performance •Fully dense parts after heat treatment | •High energy consumption •Long build cycles •Need of building support •Need heat treatment to release internal stress •Grainy surface |
Table 1 A comparison between SLS, SLM and DMLS additive manufacturing methods.
| Method | Materials | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|---|
| SLS | Polymers (e.g., PA12, PEEK, PCL, PMMA); Metals; Ceramics | •High dimensional accuracy •Flexibility in the type of materials •Easy modification and design changes •Elimination of any post-curing •Best mechanical properties and less anisotropy | •Rough surfaces •Poor reusability of un-sintered powder •Shrinkage and warping due to the thermal distortion •The strength of the part is weaker in the Z-direction than in the other •The price of machinery is expensive |
| SLM | Metals | •No distinct binder and melt phases •Producing fully dense parts in a direct way •Elimination of some post-treatments | •Not suitable for well-controlled composites •Expensive laser and longer build times •Melt pool instabilities and higher residual stress |
| DMLS | Metals | •High speed •Complex geometries •High quality (high accuracy and detailed resolution) •Good static mechanical properties •Medium surface roughness with good biological performance •Fully dense parts after heat treatment | •High energy consumption •Long build cycles •Need of building support •Need heat treatment to release internal stress •Grainy surface |
Fig. 2. Different types of defects in L-PBF fabricated parts due to improper laser energy density (A: normal; B: poor material fusion; C: overheating; D: insufficient heating).
Fig. 3. SEM micrographs of: (a) Ti powder, (b) Ta powder, and (c) Ti-25Ta powder mixture used for SLM process. The powder mixture shows a uniform distribution of the Ta powders (brighter) within the Ti powder (darker) [70]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
| Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|
| • Tailoring the microstructure and properties based on individual patient needs, such as adjusting the density of the implant to match bone density • Production of bone implants with biomimicry features • A definable degree of surface roughness that helps bones and implants to fuse better • Lattice structures that can help to accelerate post-operative healing significantly • Shortening of hospitalization period and minimizing unpleasant side effects • Reducing aseptic loosening to delay revision surgery | • Cost is a major factor as specialized machinery costs a lot. While AM by itself consumes less time, prefabrication and post-processing may be intensive and are not straightforward. Furthermore, the associated postproduction equipment takes up at least as much space • The fine metal powders and even finer nanoparticle waste represent a significant health and safety challenge • The high thermal gradients present during SLM are due to the short interaction times; the extremely high heat input gives rise to residual stresses, elemental segregation, stress cracking, formation of nonequilibrium phases, and entrapped spherical gas bubbles • A large degree of shrinkage and warpage tends to occur during liquid-solid transformation, decreasing the dimensional accuracy and accumulating considerable stresses in SLM-processed components • PBF leads to lower surface quality than other AM techniques due to the presence of large and partially melted powder particles in the printed pieces’ surfaces • Limited component size: the size of components is restricted by the size of the build chamber |
Table 2 Some of the benefits and drawbacks of L-PBF technologies for the fabrication of load-bearing biomaterials.
| Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|
| • Tailoring the microstructure and properties based on individual patient needs, such as adjusting the density of the implant to match bone density • Production of bone implants with biomimicry features • A definable degree of surface roughness that helps bones and implants to fuse better • Lattice structures that can help to accelerate post-operative healing significantly • Shortening of hospitalization period and minimizing unpleasant side effects • Reducing aseptic loosening to delay revision surgery | • Cost is a major factor as specialized machinery costs a lot. While AM by itself consumes less time, prefabrication and post-processing may be intensive and are not straightforward. Furthermore, the associated postproduction equipment takes up at least as much space • The fine metal powders and even finer nanoparticle waste represent a significant health and safety challenge • The high thermal gradients present during SLM are due to the short interaction times; the extremely high heat input gives rise to residual stresses, elemental segregation, stress cracking, formation of nonequilibrium phases, and entrapped spherical gas bubbles • A large degree of shrinkage and warpage tends to occur during liquid-solid transformation, decreasing the dimensional accuracy and accumulating considerable stresses in SLM-processed components • PBF leads to lower surface quality than other AM techniques due to the presence of large and partially melted powder particles in the printed pieces’ surfaces • Limited component size: the size of components is restricted by the size of the build chamber |
Fig. 4. The importance of customization for manufacturing a pelvic bone plate: (a) a customized Ti-6Al-4V bone plate after heat treatment and anodization; and (b) anatomical match between bone plate and pelvic model [106]. Reproduced with permission from MDPI.
Fig. 5. (a) External and (b) internal parts of an SLM-fabricated Ti-6Al-4V (ELI) acetabular cup, post-processed using HIP.
Fig. 6. Radiographic images of a cemented total knee arthroplasty in the right knee of a 73-year-old woman, six months after the implantation of the prosthesis. The arrows indicate the PMMA bone cement [118]. Reproduced with permission from MDPI.
Fig. 7. Medtronic's ARTiC-L Spinal System. Courtesy of Medtronic PLC.
Fig. 8. Application of SLM process in craniomaxillofacial surgery. Grade 23 Ti-6Al-4V (ELI) cranial and mandibular implants for: (a) mandibular resection; (b) fixation of mandibular angle; (c) fixation of cranial bone flaps with a patient-specific cranial implant; and (d) custom mandible surgical guides. Figs. 8 (a-c) courtesy of Bonash Medical and Fig. 8(d) courtesy of Adeiss centre, Western University.
Fig. 9. A biodegradable patient-specific cranial implant demonstrator made by SLS from PLA/CC composite powder on the customized Formiga P 110 machine [143]. Courtesy of KLS Martin Group.
Fig. 10. SEM micrographs of dental implants fabricated by DMLS: (a) as-fabricated implant; (b) fabricated implant after etching process [158]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
Fig. 11. SEM macrographs of an SLM porous 316L stainless steel from: a) perpendicular angle; and b) oblique angle [78]. Reproduced with the permission from Elsevier.
Fig. 12. Images of dense and porous Ti-25Ta samples with different levels of porosity produced by SLM [70]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
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