Recent advances in synthesis strategies and solar-to-hydrogen evolution of 1T phase MS2 (M = W, Mo) co-catalysts

doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2021.05.068

Abstract

Abstract:

Photocatalytic water splitting is a promising strategy to produce hydrogen as a sustainable and clean energy carrier, based on abundant solar energy and semiconductor photocatalysts, and it has received extensive research and discussion over the past several decades. It is challenging, however, to achieve an efficient solar-to-hydrogen evolution process with a single particulate photocatalyst due to the weak solar spectrum harvest and the rapid recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs during the photocatalysis reaction. Combining semiconductors to create different co-catalysts presents a viable solution to the above issues. Recently, semiconductor photocatalysts modified by different transition metal sulfide-based co-catalysts with designed functions, especially in light absorption enhancement and charge-carrier-separation efficiency promotion, have attracted much attention. As continued breakthroughs have been made in the preparation, modification, and solar-to-hydrogen evolution application of the 1T phase MS₂ (M = W, Mo) co-catalyst-based photocatalysis system in recent years, we believe that a comprehensive review of this kind of co-catalyst would further promote its research and development to address the energy and environmental challenges that we are currently facing. Herein, recent studies and progress are summarized on the fabrication of 1T phase MS₂ (M = W, Mo)-based co-catalyst materials, as well as their roles and functional mechanisms for photocatalytic H₂ evolution. Finally, concluding perspectives on the opportunities in and challenges for the further exploration of the 1T-MS₂ (M = W, Mo)-based solar-to-hydrogen evolution system are presented.

Key words: Solar-to-hydrogen evolution, Co-catalysts, 1T-MS₂ (M=W,Mo), Water splitting, Synthesis strategies, Photocatalysis

Shuo Li, Jinyan Xiong, Xueteng Zhu, Weijie Li, Rong Chen, Gang Cheng. Recent advances in synthesis strategies and solar-to-hydrogen evolution of 1T phase MS₂ (M = W, Mo) co-catalysts[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2022, 101: 242-263.

Figures/Tables 23

Fig. 1. (a) Photocatalytic hydrogen evolution upon a particulate photocatalyst; (b) Functions of co-catalysts in photocatalysis; (c) Photocatalytic hydrogen evolution upon a particulate photocatalyst with a co-catalyst.

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of natural MS2 (M = Mo, W): (a) side view; (b) top view; (c) Transition mechanism from 2H phase to 1T-MoS2 (Reproduced with permission [102]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.).

Fig. 3. Overview of photocatalytic hydrogen evolution promoted by 1T-MS2 (M = W, Mo) co-catalyst. (A) Venkateshwaran and Senthil Kumar [107] Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society; (B) Gao et al. [13] Copyright 2020, Elsevier; (C) Li et al. [108] Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry; (D) Xu et al. [109] Copyright 2019, Elsevier; (E) Lian et al. [110] Copyright 2019, Elsevier; (F) Liang et al. [111] Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry; (G) Mao et al. [112] Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry; (H) Sun et al. [113] Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry; (I) Liang et al. [114] Copyright 2020, Elsevier; (J) Liang et al. [115] Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry; (K) Qi et al. [116] Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society.

Table 1 Comparison of different synthesis methods.

Method	1T phase content	Advantages	Disadvantages
Alkali metal intercalation	70-90%	Commonly used	Dangerous, and the size is not uniform
Electrochemical intercalation	90-97%	Quick and controllable experimental parameters	Low output and complex equipment
Auxiliary exfoliation method	70-90%	Simple operation and environmentally friendly	High pressure or some difficult requirements
Introduction of sulfur vacancies	15-50%	Simple operation	Low phase purity
Electron donor induction	Adjustable	Experimental parameters can be tailored and detected in situ	Can only be used for single layers
Chemical vapor deposition	100%	High crystallinity	Cannot grow on the substrate
Template method	60%+	Morphology-controlled	Complex operation and low yield
Hydrothermal/solvothermal method	25-100%	Quick, safe, and can be grown directly on the substrate	Poor crystallinity
Calcination method	100%	Simple operation	Easy to sublime at high temperature

Fig. 4. (a) Multilayer lithium ion intercalation-exfoliation method (Reproduced with permission [109]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.); (b) Electrochemical intercalation (Reproduced with permission [126]. Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.); (c) Supercritical CO2 assisted exfoliation method (Reproduced with permission [116]. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society.).

Fig. 5. (a) Synthesis of flower-like 1T-MoS2 from SBA-15 template (Reproduced with permission [107]. Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.); (b) Synthesis of 1T/2H mixed phase MoS2 from ZIF template (Reproduced with permission [13]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.).

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic illustration of 1T-WS2 prepared by the hydrothermal method (Reproduced with permission [136]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.); (b) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of sea urchin-like 1T-WS2/SWCNTs (Reproduced with permission [119]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.)

Fig. 7. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of 1T WS2 by the PE-CVD method (Reproduced with permission [137]. Copyright 2020, Small.); (b) Schematic illustration of the synthesis, and (c) scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of butterfly WS2 (Reproduced with permission [138]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.).

Fig. 8. (a) Ultrasound-assisted synthesis of 1T-MoS2/C3N4 complex (Reproduced with permission [111]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry, London); (b) Synthesis of 1T-MoS2/g-C3N4 binary composite by ultrasonication assisted methods (Reproduced with permission [115]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry, London); (c) Synthesis of 1T-MoS2/ZnCoS composite by "boiled in one-pot" method (Reproduced with permission [112]. Copyright 2019, London); (d) Synthesis of 1T-MoS2/O-g-C3N4 heterostructures by the in-situ growth method (Reproduced with permission [141]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.).

Table 2 Photocatalytic performance of 1T-MS2 (M = W, Mo) co-catalyst-based photocatalysis system towards hydrogen evolution.

Photocatalyst	Synthetic method for 1T-MS₂ (M=W or Mo)	Dosage of photocatalyst	H₂ evolution (mmol·g^-1·h^-1)	Irradiation source	Sacrificial reagent.	content of 1T-MS₂ (M=W, Mo)	Reference
Ti₃C₂/TiO₂/1T-MoS₂	Hydrothermal method	10 mg/100 mL	9.738	300 W Xe lamp	15 mL Acetone + 5 mL TEOA +80 mL DI	84.00%	[108]
1T-MoS₂@C₃N₄	Sonication-assisted hydrothermal method	20 mg/100 mL	0.565	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	79.00%	[111]
1T-MoS₂/O-g-C₃N₄	In-situ growth method	10 mg/100 mL	1.84172	300 W Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	>70%	[141]
CdSe/ZnS/1T-MoS₂	Lithium-ion intercalation exfoliation	2.5 mg/5 mL	155	300 W Xe lamp	25 vol% Et₃N	^_	[142]
TiO₂/1T-MoS₂	Self-assembly method	15 mg/20 mL	2	300 W Xe lamp	25 vol% methanol	57.00%	[143]
TiO₂/1T-WS₂	Colloidal synthesismethod	200 mg/L	2.57	300 W Xe lamp	DI: methanol = 3:1	100.00%	[124]
O-1T-MoS₂/CdS	Hydrothermal method	2 mg/20 mL	132.4	500 W metal halide lamp	10% (v/v) HL: H₂O	87.00%	[144]
ZnS@CdS@Cd_0.5Zn_0.5S-MoS₂	Solvothermal method	10 mg/100 mL	50.65	300 W Xe lamp	10% (v/v) HL: H₂O	-	[113]
RGO/1T-MoS₂	One-step hydrothermal process	0.1 g/30 mL	71.2	250 W UV lamp	30 mL ascorbic acid (3 × 10^-2 M) and CoCl₂·6H₂O (2 × 10^-4 M)	100.00%	[145]
1T- PtS₂/MCN	Cryo-mediated liquid phase exfoliation (LPE)	50 mg/100 mL	1.168	300 W Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	-	[146]
1T-MoS₂/Si-TiO₂	Hydrothermal method	0.1 g/30 mL	190	250 W UV lamp	30 mL ascorbic acid (3 × 10^-2 M) and CoCl₂·6H₂O (2 × 10^-4 M)	-	[147]
1T-MoS₂@g-C₃N₄	Hydrothermal method	50 mg/100 mL	0.9487	300 W Xe lamp	HL	-	[148]
MoS₂/CdS	Solvothermal method	10 mg/100 mL	0.27258	300 W Xe lamp	2.0 mL lactic acid alone or 0.010 mol glucose and 2.0 mL lactic acid	-	[149]
CdS@1T-MoS₂	Solvothermal method	20 mg/50 mL	2.67	400 W Xe lamp	15% (v/v) TEOA: H₂O	-	[110]
1T-MoS₂/TiO₂(001)	Hydrothermal method	25 mg/50 mL	21.5	Xe lamp, 73 mWcm^-2	0.35 M Na₂S and 0.25 M Na₂SO₃	79.50%	[150]
WSe₂-Zn_0.1Cd_0.9S	Colloidal method	10 mg/40 mL	147.32	500 W Xe lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H₂O	-	[151]
MoS₂/Zn_0.5Co_0.5S	Hydrothermal method	30 mg/50 mL	15.47	300 W Xe lamp	TEA, EY, acetonitrile	-	[112]
1T-MoS₂@CdS	Hydrothermal method	20 mg/100 mL	17.479	300 W Xe lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H₂O	-	[152]
CuS-1T -MoS₂	Hydrothermal method	50 mg/50 mL	9.6487	300 W Xe lamp	0.3 M Na₂SO₃	∼70%	[153]
1T-MoS₂/CdS	Lithium-ion intercalation exfoliation	20 mg/100 mL	0.79493	300 W Xe lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H₂O	-	[154]
1T-MoS₂ QD@g-C₃N₄	Ultrasonic mixing method	20 mg/100 mL	1.857	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	∼80%	[115]
g-CN/1T-MoS₂	Li-intercalationexfoliation	30 mg/100 mL	5.62	Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	∼68%	[109]
1T-MoS₂-CdS	Ultrasonic mixing	2 mg/20 mL	131.7	500 W metal halide lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H2O	>82%	[155]
1T-WS₂@TiO₂@Ti₃C₂	Hydrothermal method	10 mg/100 mL	3.4098	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	73.00%	[156]
1TMoS₂/MIL-125-NH₂	Hydrothermal method	17 mg/17 mL	1.454	300 W Xe lamp	MeCN: TEOA: H₂O (79.0: 16.1: 4.9 v/v/v)	∼75%	[157]
CdS@1TMoS₂	Hydrothermal method	50 mg/100 mL	9.11	300 W Xe lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H₂O	61.60%	[128]
1T'-MoS₂@MoO₃	One-pot solvothermal method	4 mg/100 mL	22.108	300 W Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	-	[158]
TiO₂@MoS₂	Hydrothermal intercalation/exfoliation	20 mg/80 mL	56	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	60.00%	[159]
1T-WS₂/2D-C₃N₄	Solvothermal process	10 mg/100 mL	0.33109	300 W Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	64.10%	[136]
MoO₃/1T-MoS₂/g-C₃N₄	In situ sulphuration	10 mg/20 mL	0.513	300 W Xe lamp	TEOA	-	[160]
(Cl₂) -(Bi₁₂O₁₇) -(MoS₂)	Hydrothermal method	10 mg/80 mL	33	300 W Xe lamp	0.3M HL	-	[161]
1T-WS₂/g-C₃N₄	Solvothermal process	40 mg/100 mL	1.021	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	65.30%	[114]
MoS₂@HCS (hollow carbon sphere)	Lithium intercalation method	10 mg/100 mL	7.2	300 W Xe lamp	15 vol% TEOA pH8.5	47.00%	[162]
1T-MoS₂/P25/NiO_x	Lithium intercalation method	100 mg/300 mL	1.6291	300 W Xe lamp	0.1 M methanol	∼70%	[15]

Table 2 Photocatalytic performance of 1T-MS2 (M = W, Mo) co-catalyst-based photocatalysis system towards hydrogen evolution.

Photocatalyst	Synthetic method for 1T-MS₂ (M=W or Mo)	Dosage of photocatalyst	H₂ evolution (mmol·g^-1·h^-1)	Irradiation source	Sacrificial reagent.	content of 1T-MS₂ (M=W, Mo)	Reference
Ti₃C₂/TiO₂/1T-MoS₂	Hydrothermal method	10 mg/100 mL	9.738	300 W Xe lamp	15 mL Acetone + 5 mL TEOA +80 mL DI	84.00%	[108]
1T-MoS₂@C₃N₄	Sonication-assisted hydrothermal method	20 mg/100 mL	0.565	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	79.00%	[111]
1T-MoS₂/O-g-C₃N₄	In-situ growth method	10 mg/100 mL	1.84172	300 W Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	>70%	[141]
CdSe/ZnS/1T-MoS₂	Lithium-ion intercalation exfoliation	2.5 mg/5 mL	155	300 W Xe lamp	25 vol% Et₃N	^_	[142]
TiO₂/1T-MoS₂	Self-assembly method	15 mg/20 mL	2	300 W Xe lamp	25 vol% methanol	57.00%	[143]
TiO₂/1T-WS₂	Colloidal synthesismethod	200 mg/L	2.57	300 W Xe lamp	DI: methanol = 3:1	100.00%	[124]
O-1T-MoS₂/CdS	Hydrothermal method	2 mg/20 mL	132.4	500 W metal halide lamp	10% (v/v) HL: H₂O	87.00%	[144]
ZnS@CdS@Cd_0.5Zn_0.5S-MoS₂	Solvothermal method	10 mg/100 mL	50.65	300 W Xe lamp	10% (v/v) HL: H₂O	-	[113]
RGO/1T-MoS₂	One-step hydrothermal process	0.1 g/30 mL	71.2	250 W UV lamp	30 mL ascorbic acid (3 × 10^-2 M) and CoCl₂·6H₂O (2 × 10^-4 M)	100.00%	[145]
1T- PtS₂/MCN	Cryo-mediated liquid phase exfoliation (LPE)	50 mg/100 mL	1.168	300 W Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	-	[146]
1T-MoS₂/Si-TiO₂	Hydrothermal method	0.1 g/30 mL	190	250 W UV lamp	30 mL ascorbic acid (3 × 10^-2 M) and CoCl₂·6H₂O (2 × 10^-4 M)	-	[147]
1T-MoS₂@g-C₃N₄	Hydrothermal method	50 mg/100 mL	0.9487	300 W Xe lamp	HL	-	[148]
MoS₂/CdS	Solvothermal method	10 mg/100 mL	0.27258	300 W Xe lamp	2.0 mL lactic acid alone or 0.010 mol glucose and 2.0 mL lactic acid	-	[149]
CdS@1T-MoS₂	Solvothermal method	20 mg/50 mL	2.67	400 W Xe lamp	15% (v/v) TEOA: H₂O	-	[110]
1T-MoS₂/TiO₂(001)	Hydrothermal method	25 mg/50 mL	21.5	Xe lamp, 73 mWcm^-2	0.35 M Na₂S and 0.25 M Na₂SO₃	79.50%	[150]
WSe₂-Zn_0.1Cd_0.9S	Colloidal method	10 mg/40 mL	147.32	500 W Xe lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H₂O	-	[151]
MoS₂/Zn_0.5Co_0.5S	Hydrothermal method	30 mg/50 mL	15.47	300 W Xe lamp	TEA, EY, acetonitrile	-	[112]
1T-MoS₂@CdS	Hydrothermal method	20 mg/100 mL	17.479	300 W Xe lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H₂O	-	[152]
CuS-1T -MoS₂	Hydrothermal method	50 mg/50 mL	9.6487	300 W Xe lamp	0.3 M Na₂SO₃	∼70%	[153]
1T-MoS₂/CdS	Lithium-ion intercalation exfoliation	20 mg/100 mL	0.79493	300 W Xe lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H₂O	-	[154]
1T-MoS₂ QD@g-C₃N₄	Ultrasonic mixing method	20 mg/100 mL	1.857	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	∼80%	[115]
g-CN/1T-MoS₂	Li-intercalationexfoliation	30 mg/100 mL	5.62	Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	∼68%	[109]
1T-MoS₂-CdS	Ultrasonic mixing	2 mg/20 mL	131.7	500 W metal halide lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H2O	>82%	[155]
1T-WS₂@TiO₂@Ti₃C₂	Hydrothermal method	10 mg/100 mL	3.4098	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	73.00%	[156]
1TMoS₂/MIL-125-NH₂	Hydrothermal method	17 mg/17 mL	1.454	300 W Xe lamp	MeCN: TEOA: H₂O (79.0: 16.1: 4.9 v/v/v)	∼75%	[157]
CdS@1TMoS₂	Hydrothermal method	50 mg/100 mL	9.11	300 W Xe lamp	10%(v/v) HL: H₂O	61.60%	[128]
1T'-MoS₂@MoO₃	One-pot solvothermal method	4 mg/100 mL	22.108	300 W Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	-	[158]
TiO₂@MoS₂	Hydrothermal intercalation/exfoliation	20 mg/80 mL	56	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	60.00%	[159]
1T-WS₂/2D-C₃N₄	Solvothermal process	10 mg/100 mL	0.33109	300 W Xe lamp	10 vol% TEOA	64.10%	[136]
MoO₃/1T-MoS₂/g-C₃N₄	In situ sulphuration	10 mg/20 mL	0.513	300 W Xe lamp	TEOA	-	[160]
(Cl₂) -(Bi₁₂O₁₇) -(MoS₂)	Hydrothermal method	10 mg/80 mL	33	300 W Xe lamp	0.3M HL	-	[161]
1T-WS₂/g-C₃N₄	Solvothermal process	40 mg/100 mL	1.021	300 W Xe lamp	20 vol% TEOA	65.30%	[114]
MoS₂@HCS (hollow carbon sphere)	Lithium intercalation method	10 mg/100 mL	7.2	300 W Xe lamp	15 vol% TEOA pH8.5	47.00%	[162]
1T-MoS₂/P25/NiO_x	Lithium intercalation method	100 mg/300 mL	1.6291	300 W Xe lamp	0.1 M methanol	∼70%	[15]

Fig. 9. (a) Hydrogen evolution rates of different samples and loadings of 1T-MoS2; (b) Schematic illustration of the photocatalytic hydrogen evolution mechanism of 1T-MoS2@C3N4 nanorods (Reproduced with permission [111]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry, London); (c) Hydrogen evolution rate with different loadings of 1T-MoS2 quantum dots (QDs); (d) Schematic illustration of the hydrogen evolution mechanism of 1T-MoS2 QDs/g-C3N4 composite. (Reproduced with permission [115]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry, London.)

Fig. 10. (a) Transmission electron microscope (TEM) image; (b) Hydrogen evolution rates; (c) schematic illustration of the photocatalytic hydrogen evolution mechanism of 1T-MoS2/O-g-C3N4 (Reproduced with permission [141]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.).

Fig. 11. (a) High resolution transmission electron microscope image of MoO3/1T-MoS2/g-C3N4, with further magnification in the inset; (b) Hydrogen evolution rates of different catalysts; (c) The hydrogen evolution mechanism of MoO3/1T-MoS2/g-C3N4. (Reproduced with permission [160]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry, London.).

Fig. 12. (a) Histogram of 1T phase and 2H phase MoS2 hydrogen evolution performance; Active sites and hydrogen evolution mechanism of MoS2 in (b)1T phase and (c) 2H phase. (Reproduced with permission [143]. Copyright 2014, Springer.).

Fig. 13. (a) TEM image of DRM-C; (b) Hydrogen evolution rates of different catalysts; (c) Conduction band positions of CdS, DFM, and DRM; (d) Schematic illustration of the hydrogen evolution mechanism for DFM-C and DRM-C. (Reproduced with permission [144]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.).

Fig. 14. (a) HRTEM image of 1T-MoS2/CdS nanosheet; (b) photocatalytic hydrogen evolution rates of 1T-MoS2/CdS nanosheets; (c) hydrogen evolution mechanism of 1T-MoS2/CdS nanosheets. (Reproduced with permission [110]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.).

Fig. 15. (a) TEM image of ZnS@CdS@Cd0.5Zn0.5S-MoS2; (b) HRTEM image of ZnS@CdS@Cd0.5Zn0.5S-MoS2; (c) Hydrogen evolution rates of different catalysts; (d) Hydrogen evolution mechanism of ZnS@CdS@Cd0.5Zn0.5S-MoS2. (Reproduced with permission [113]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry, London.)

Fig. 16. (a) Scanning electron micrograph of 2%MoS2/Zn0.5Co0.5S; (b) Photocatalytic hydrogen evolution curves in the presence of EY; (c) Schematic illustration of photocatalytic production of H2 on dye-sensitized 1T-MoS2/Zn0.5Co0.5S. (Reproduced with permission [112]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry, London.)

Fig. 17. SEM images of (a) Ti3C2, (b) MoS2, (c) Ti3C2/1T-MoS2, and (d) Ti3C2/TiO2/1T-MoS2; (e) Hydrogen evolution rates of different catalysts (f) Schematic illustration of the Ti3C2/TiO2/1T-MoS2 hydrogen evolution mechanism. (Reproduced with permission [108]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry, London.).

Fig. 18. (a) HRTEM image of a single promoter TiO2/1T-MoS2; (b) Hydrogen evolution rates of different catalysts; (c) Hydrogen evolution mechanism of MoS2/P25; (d) Hydrogen evolution mechanism of NiOx/P25; (e) Hydrogen evolution mechanism of MoS2/TiO2/NiOx. (Reproduced with permission [15]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.).

Fig. 19. (a) SEM image of 1T-WS2; (b) Hydrogen evolution rated of different catalysts; (c) Hydrogen evolution mechanism of 1T-WS2/g-C3N4. (Reproduced with permission [114]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.).

Fig. 20. (a) SEM image of 1T-WS2; (b) HRTEM image of 1T-WS2/2D-g-C3N4; (c) Hydrogen evolution mechanism of different catalysts; (d)Hydrogen evolution mechanism of 1T-WS2/2D-g-C3N4. (Reproduced with permission [136]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.).

Fig. 21. (a) SEM image of 1T-WS2@TiO2@Ti3C2; (b) Hydrogen evolution rated of different catalysts; (c) Hydrogen evolution mechanism of 1T-WS2@TiO2@Ti3C2. (Reproduced with permission [156]. Copyright 2019, Springer.).

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Recent advances in synthesis strategies and solar-to-hydrogen evolution of 1T phase MS₂ (M = W, Mo) co-catalysts

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