Recent advances in crystalline carbon nitride for photocatalysis

doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2021.03.017

Abstract

Abstract:

Semiconductor photocatalytic technology has become one of the most important means to solve the current energy shortage and environmental pollution. Compared with the traditional photocatalysts, graphite carbon nitride has a wider range of light-harvesting and more stable physical and chemical properties. However, traditional thermally induced polymerization of nitrogen-containing precursors produces the melon-based carbon nitride solids with an amorphous or semi-crystalline structure, resulting in low conductivity and moderate photocatalytic activity. Recently, crystalline carbon nitride has attracted more and more attention in improving photocatalytic performance. Some significant progress regarding crystalline carbon nitride for the preparation of solar-fuel and environmental purification has also been made. This review describes the recent advances in the design and synthesis of crystalline carbon nitride photocatalysts. A brief description of the unique physical and chemical properties of crystalline carbon nitride was given. Later, the synthetic and modification strategies are being introduced. Then, the photocatalytic application of crystalline carbon nitride was discussed, mainly including photocatalytic H₂ production, photocatalytic CO₂ reduction, and photocatalytic degradation of pollutants. Finally, the challenges and future directions of crystalline carbon nitride photocatalysts are briefly introduced.

Key words: Crystalline carbon nitride, Design and synthesis, Photocatalytic H₂ production, CO₂ reduction, Photocatalytic degradation

Jingjun Liu, Wei Fu, Yulong Liao, Jiajie Fan, Quanjun Xiang. Recent advances in crystalline carbon nitride for photocatalysis[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2021, 91: 224-240.

Figures/Tables 19

Fig. 1. A brief description of CCN photocatalyst [18], [19], [20], [21].

Fig. 2. A brief description of the synthesis method of CCN.

Fig. 3. (a) Synthetic process of the molten salt method [36]. (b) SEM and (c) TEM images of heptazine-based CCN sample and (d) H2 production of the samples and stability test of H2 production for g-CN-1 under visible light (>420 nm) irradiation using EtOH as the sacrificial agent [15].

Fig. 4. (a) Synthetic procedure of Cu-g-C3N4 composites and (b) SEM image of g-C3N4-CuCl2. (c) Degradation performances of different catalysts for RhB, MB, and MO [37]. (d) Schematic illustration of the KBr-confinement growth of KPCN and (e) Pd/KPCN [19]. (f) Schematic illustration of solid salt confinement strategy for the preparation of CPCN [38].

Fig. 5. (a) Schematic illustration for the preparation of the LOP g-CN samples [39]. (b) TEM images of the as-prepared samples: 530 LOP-CN, (c) the possible polymerization process of CCN, (d) TEM image of CCN and (e) CO2 adsorption isotherms of CCN and BCN [42].

Fig. 6. Design principles and modification strategies of CCN photocatalyst [16,[37], [38], [39],43,44].

Fig. 7. The outline of the surface design of CCN [20,36,45].

Fig. 8. (a) Schematic diagram of the photocatalytic mechanism of BCN, CCN, and 0.1HCCN, (b) TEM of CCN and 0.1HCCN, (c) photoelectric AC curve and (d) the stability test of 0.1HCCN and CCN using TEOA/H2O solution as the sacrificial agents [36]. (e) The rate of photocatalytic formation of H2 in an aqueous solution of a mixture of ethanol and lactic acid as the original electron donor and an aqueous solution of original g-C3N4 and CCN [46].

Fig. 9. (a) Structure of the PHI-based CN with defects and (b) CO2 adsorption isotherms of CN, CN-M, and CN-M-0.01 at 273 K [20]. (c) Schematic diagram of CCN reaction with nitrogen vacancies and (d) Under visible light irradiation and simulated sunlight, the photocatalytic H2 of the prepared sample is released [53].

Fig. 10. (a) Illustration of defect engineering strategy, (b) schematic diagram of inferred belt structure in D-CCN, (c) transient photocurrent measurements for CCN and D-CCN (@0.2 V bias potential, relative to Ag/AgCl) and (d) wavelength dependence of H2 evolution rate of CCN and D-CCN (Inset: wavelength dependence of H2 evolution on D-CCN AQY (left axis) and UV/Vis light absorption spectrum of D-CCN (right axis) [45].

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic diagram of the tentative photocatalytic mechanism of HTCN under light irradiation: EC is the contact electric field of two materials; EB is a potential barrier at the interface (EB< EC in photocatalytic reaction). (b) HR-TEM image of HTCN. (c) Hydrogen evolution rate (HER) of the sample with 3% Pt as co-catalyst under 1 h light irradiation. (d) Structure model diagram of HCN, TCN, and HTCN [18].

Fig. 12. (a) Schematic diagrams of PTI/Li+ and the crystal structure of PTI/Li+Cl- Cl-crystal. (b) The relationship of the maximum H2 and O2 escape rate as the average surface area ratio. (c) PTI/Li+Cl- charge density along (0001) and {101¯0} crystal planes respectively. (d) SEM image of PTI/Li+Cl- [43].

Fig. 13. (a) Schematic diagram of liquid spalling from block-shaped crystalline carbonitrides to ultrathin nanocrystals. (b) Schematic illustration of carbon nitride nanosheets for H2 evolution under visible light. A single-layer atomic structure of (left) the pristine carbon nitrides with hydrogen bonds and (right) the CCN. H, C, and N atoms are denoted by small white, large gray, and light grey balls, respectively. (c) TEM image of exfoliated nanosheets after sonication for 10 h. and (d, e) AFM image of exfoliated nanosheets after sonication for 25 h [21]. (f) SEM and TEM images of CN16. (g) Photocatalytic H2 generation rate of CNt (t = 10, 12, 16) and CN540 samples [109].

Fig. 14. (a) TEM image of MTCN-6. (b) XRD patterns of tri-thiocyanuric acid, melamine, and MT-6. (c) UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra (DRS). (d) K-M-plot. (e) Electronic bandgap structure of CN (Left) and MTCN-6 (Right). (f) H2-generation rate of CN and MTCN-X (X = 0.5, 3, 6, 12) [118].

Table 1 Summary of photocatalytic H2 production from CCN.

Photocatalyst	Synthesis method	Structure	Co-catalyst	Photosource	Catalyst amount	R_H2(μmol g^-1 h^-1)	RH2(CCN)RH2(BCN)	Quantum efficiency	Ref.
PTI nanosheets	Ionothermal synthesis,One-step liquid exfoliaton	Nanosheets	2.2 wt% Pt,8 wt% H₂PtCl₆	300 W Xe lamp,dichroic mirror	-	-	18	-	[35]
CN16	Microwave-assisted thermolysis	Nanosheets	0.5 wt% Pt	300 W Xe lampλ > 420 nm	20.0 mg	2025.0	6.75	-	[109]
g-CN-1	Molten salt method	Nanosheet to nanorodstructure with a porous structure	3.0 wt% Pt	300 W Xe lamp	50.0 mg	550.0	3.89	50.7%@405 nm	[15]
CCNNSs	Sonication-centrifugation process	As a silk veil,similar to graphene	3.0 wt% Pt	300 W Xe lamp λ>420nm	50.0 mg	1060.0	66.25	8.57% @420 nm	[21]
CCNNSs	Two-step calcination method	Nanosheets	-	300 W Xe lampAM 1.5	50.0 mg	9577.6	15.5	9.01% @420 nm	[23]
CCN550	Molten salt method	Nanorod	3.0 wt% Pt	300 W Xe lamp	50.0 mg	660.0	18.3	6.8% a@420 nm	[56]
MTCN-6	Heteroatom-doping	Rectangular shape	1.0 wt% Pt	300 W Xe lampλ > 420 nm	40.0 mg	1511.2	11	3.9% a@420 nm	[118]
D-CCN	Facile post-processing strategy	-	3.0 wt% Pt	300 W Xe lamp	50.0 mg	1280.0	-	-	[45]
CPCN	Solid-salt-assisted growth strategy	-	1.0 wt% Pt	300 W Xe lampλ≥ 420 nm	-	1356,0	18	11.4 %@420±5 nm	[19]
HTCN-500	Molten salt method	Nanosheets	Pt and Ag/AgCl	350 W Xe lamp	-	890.0	15	26.7%@420 nm	[70]
0.1HCCN	Molten salt method	Nanorod	3 wt% Pt	350 W Xe lamp	20.0 mg	683.54	10	6.6%@420 nm	[18]
CNNVs-CTe	Facile alkali-assisted salts molten method	-	Me	full-spectrum andvisible light (λ > 420 nm)	-	8723.8	18.48	-	[51]

Fig. 15. (a) Ultraviolet-visible DRS of the samples. (b) H2 production of the samples for CCN and (c) SEM image of CCN. (d) TEM image of CCN [15].

Fig. 16. (a) TEM image of CCN nanosheets. (b) HRTEM image displaying nanosheets. (c) Comparison of the H2 evolution rate of different chelating agents [21].

Fig. 17. (a) TEM image of CCN. (b) Calculation of the bandgap of CN and (c) CO2 adsorption isotherms of CCN and BCN. (d) Photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of CCN and BCN under 86% humidity [42].

Fig. 18. (a) TEM and (b) SEM images of the synthesized products. (c) Schematic showing that Li was successfully embedded into the nitride carbon in the molten salt process [44].

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