Metal-organic framework-derived carbon-based composites for electromagnetic wave absorption: Dimension design and morphology regulation

doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2022.06.013

Abstract

Abstract:

Developing highly efficient microwave absorbing materials (MAMs) to ameliorate the electromagnetic (EM) response and facilitate energy absorption is crucial in both the civil and military industries. Metal-organic framework (MOF) derived nanoporous carbon composites have emerged as advanced MAMs owing to their rich porosity, tunable compositions, facile functionalization, and morphology diversity. Together with the flourishing development of composition-tuning strategy, the rational dimension design and elaborate control over the architectures have also evolved into an effective approach to regulating their EM properties. Herein, we provide a comprehensive review of the recent advances in using dimension and morphology modulation to adjust the microwave attenuation capacities for MOF-derived carbon composites. The underlying design rules and unique advantages for the MAMs of various dimensions were discussed with the selection of representative work, providing general concepts and insight on how to efficiently tune the morphologies. Accordingly, the fundamental dimension-morphology-function relationship was also elucidated. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of dimension design and morphology control over MOF-derived MAMs were also presented.

Key words: MOF-derived carbon composites, Electromagnetic microwave absorption, Dimension design, Morphology regulation

Yujie Ren, Xin Wang, Jiaxin Ma, Qi Zheng, Lianjun Wang, Wan Jiang. Metal-organic framework-derived carbon-based composites for electromagnetic wave absorption: Dimension design and morphology regulation[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2023, 132: 223-251.

Figures/Tables 29

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of micro/nanoarchitecture design of carbon-based composites derived from MOFs for MAMs. Reproduced with permission from Refs. [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30].

Fig. 2. Microwave absorption mechanism of MOF-derived composites, including (a) polarization loss, reproduced with permission from Refs. [22,61,62], (b) magnetic loss, reproduced with permission from Refs. [63], [64], [65], (c) conduction loss, reproduced with permission from Refs. [22,66], (d) multi-scattering and reflection, reproduced with permission from Refs. [61,67].

Fig. 3. (a) Fabrication process of UiO-66 and PCN-125 derivatives. (b) Schematic illustration of microwave absorption mechanisms, (c, d) SEM and HRTEM images, (e) 3D RL maps, (f) 2D RL projection mappings of TiO2/ZrTiO4/C composites. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [85].

Fig. 4. (a) Synthetic routes of octahedral Cu9S5/C composites and pure carbon. (b) SEM and (c) TEM images of Cu9S5/C. Simulated electric field distribution in (d1) carbon skeleton, (d2) Cu9S5/C composites, and magnetic field distribution in (d3) carbon skeleton, (d4) Cu9S5/C composites. (e) 3D RL diagrams and (f) the corresponding projection diagrams of Cu9S5/C composites. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [62].

Fig. 5. Synthesis process of (a) ZIF-67, (b) ZIF-67/PVP, (c) ZIF-67@PVP-PDA, and (d) CNC NPs. (e) RL curves of CNC. (f) TEM and (g) HRTEM images of CNC. (h) Schematic diagram of microwave absorption mechanisms of CNC. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [88].

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of Prussian blue analogue (PBA) derivates in different heat treatment atmospheres. SEM images of (b) CoFe/C and (c) NiFe/C. (d, e) RL curves of CoFe/C and NiFe/C corresponding to thickness. (f) Microwave absorption mechanism of as-prepared composites. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [91].

Fig. 7. (a) Illustration of the formation of porous Co/ZrO2/C octahedra. (b) SEM and (c) TEM images of Co/ZrO2/C composites. (d) SAED pattern of Co/ZrO2/C octahedra. (e) 3D RL maps and (f) the corresponding platforms of Co/ZrO2/C composites. (g) Schematic diagram of EMW attenuation mechanism. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [26].

Fig. 8. (a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of CoNi@NG-NCPs. (b-d) SEM, TEM images, and SAED pattern of CoNi@NG-NCPs. (e) 3D RL data dependent on the frequency and the thickness of the absorbers for CoNi@NG-NCP. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [95].

Fig. 9. (a) Illustration for the formation of the Co/N PC composites. (b) Mechanism of the formation of ZIF-67@PDA. (c-f) TEM images of T1-700, T2-700, T3-700, and T4-700. (h) Schematic of the EMW attenuation mechanisms of Co/N PC composites. (i) RL curves of T3-700 at thickness regions of 2.0-3.0 mm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [28].

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic overview of NiCo@C microboxes preparation process. (b) TEM images of (b1) NiCo@C-0, (b2) NiCo@C-1, (b3) NiCo@C-2, and (b4) NiCo@C-3. (c) 3D RL representations of NiCo@C-2. (d) Microwave absorption mechanisms of NiCo@C microboxes. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [99].

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic illustration for the synthesis of the hollow cavity in ZIF-67@SiO2. (b, c) SEM images of ZIF-67 and ZIF-67@SiO2. (d1, e1) SEM and (d2, e2) TEM images of ZIF-67 and ZIF-67@SiO2 after high-temperature pyrolysis. (f) Microwave absorption mechanisms of ZIF-67@SiO2-700. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [100].

Fig. 12. (a) Schematic illustrations of the synthesis of HBN-Co/C composites. (b, c) SEM images of HBN-Co/C. (d) RL curves of the HBN-Co/C composites with various thicknesses. (e) Multiple reflection and consumption of EMWs in pores or voids in the HBN-Co/C composites. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [105].

Fig. 13. (a) Schematic representation of the facile synthesis route of the FeCoNi@C nanocomposites. (b) SEM and (c) TEM images of FeCoNi@C nanocomposites. (d) RL curves of FeCoNi-MOF-700. (e) Schematic illustration of the possible microwave absorption mechanisms of FeCoNi@C nanocomposites. Reproduced with permission from Refs. [108].

Fig. 14. (a) Synthetic scheme of the preparation of Co@NPC, Co@NPC@TiO2, and C-ZIF-67@TiO2. 3D RL curves for (b) Co@NPC@TiO2, (c) C-ZIF-67@TiO2. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [118].

Fig. 15. (a) Schematic illustration of the preparation of yolk-shelled Co3O4/NC@CoNix (x = 1, 1.5, 2) composites. (b) Calculated RL curves, (c) 3D RL map, (d) corresponding contour maps, and (e) contour map of Z values of Co3O4/NC@CoNi1.5. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [119].

Fig. 16. (a) Synthetic process of NiCo alloy/carbon nanorod@CNTs from NiCo-MOF-74 nanorods. (b-d) Low-magnification SEM, low-magnification TEM, and high-magnification TEM images of NiCo alloy/carbon nanorods@CNT composites. (e) Schematic diagram of the microwave absorption mechanism. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [123].

Fig. 17. (a) Schematic diagram of the synthetic process of FMCFs composites. (b) SEM and (c) TEM images of FMCFs composites. (d, e) EMW attenuation mechanism diagram of carbon matrix composites. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [40].

Fig. 18. (a) Schematic diagram of 3D hierarchical Mo2N@CoFe@C/CNT composites constructed by the fast MOF-based ligand exchange strategy. (b-d) TEM images of Mo2N@CoFe@C/CNT composites. (e) 3D plots of reflection loss of Mo2N@CoFe@C/CNT. (f) The microwave absorption mechanism of 3D hierarchical Mo2N@CoFe@C/CNT composites. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [27].

Fig. 19. (a) Solvothermal synthesis of Co-MOF nanosheets and subsequent pyrolysis to produce nanolayered Co@C hybrids. (b, c) SEM images of the Co@C hybrids. (d) The TEM images of the Co@C hybrids. (e) Schematic diagram of EMW absorption mechanism. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21].

Fig. 20. (a) Schematic diagram illustrating the preparation process of hierarchically porous Fe-Co/NC/rGO. (b, c) SEM images of Fe-Co/NC/rGO. (d) Schematic diagram of microwave absorption mechanism of Fe-Co/NC/rGO. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [128].

Fig. 21. (a) Schematic diagram for the fabrication process of the MXene/Co-CZIF and MXene/Ni-CZIF. (b, c) SEM images of MXene. (d, e) SEM images of MXene@Co-CZIF. (f, g) SEM images of MXene@Ni-CZIF. (h, i) RLmin values of MXene@Co-CZIF 50% and MXene@Ni-CZIF 50%. (j) Schematic diagram of the possible microwave absorption mechanism of MXene@Co-CZIF and MXene@Ni-CZIF. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [130].

Fig. 22. (a, b) Schematic synthesis process and self-assembly of 2D iron-quinoid MOF. (c-f) SEM images of samples at different calcination temperatures. (g) 3D colormap of RL of iron-quinoid MOF calcined at 160 °C. (h) RL and normalized impedance minus unity at different thicknesses. (i) Schematic microwave absorbing mechanism of iron-quinoid MOF. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [23].

Fig. 23. (a) RL curves and (b) schematic diagram of the proposed microwave absorption mechanism of CNT/FeCoNi@C sponges. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [133].

Fig. 24. (a) Schematic illustration of a preparation process and (b) microwave absorption mechanism for CoFe@C composites with rod-like, nest-like, and sheet-like structures. (c-e) 3D RL curves of CoFe@C composites. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [141].

Fig. 25. (a) Synthetic process of Co@NC composites. Electron holography images and corresponding magnetic field distribution for (b-e) Co@NCNT-c, (f, g) Co@NCNT-d, (h, i) Co@NCNT-o. (j) Schematic diagram of the microwave absorption mechanism in the Co@NCNT-o composites. (k-m) RL curves of Co@NCNT-c, Co@NCNT-d, Co@NCNT-o. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [142].

Fig. 26. (a) Synthetic process of CoNC/CNTs composites. (b) Schematic diagram for the design of cactus-inspired 1D-2D mixed-dimensional CoNC/CNTs for MAMs. (c) Simulated RL patterns of CoNC/CNTs composites. (d, e) SEM images of CoNC/CNT-3/1. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [29].

Fig. 27. (a) Schematic synthetic route of HCF@NC/Co. (b, c) SEM images of HLF@ZIF-67. (d) SEM and (e)TEM images of HCF@NC/Co. Insets show the size distribution of Co NPs. (f) RL curves and (g) 2D RL projection mappings of HCF@NC/Co. (h) Schematic diagram of the EMW absorption mechanism for HCF@NC/Co. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [144].

Fig. 28. (a) Schematic illustrations of the synthesis of MnO@NPC and MnO2@NPC. (b, c) SEM images of MnO@NPC-800 and MnO2@NPC-800. (d) TEM and (e) HRTEM images of the MnO2@NPC-800 sample. (f) RL curves of MnO2@NPC-800. (g) Schematic diagram of the EMW absorption mechanisms of MnO@NPC and MnO2@NPC composites. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [145].

Table 1. Summary of EMW absorption performance of MOF-derived composites based on dimension and morphology.

Dimension	Morphology	Composition	RL (dB)	EAB (GHz)	Thick-ness (mm)	Filling ratio (wt.%)	Refs.
0D Structures	Polyhedra	N-doped porous carbon	-39.7	4.3	4	50	[82]
		CoO/NPC	-57.5	4.7	1.55	50	[83]
		ZrO₂/C	-58.7	5.5 (1.7 mm)	1.5	50	[84]
		TiO₂/ZrTiO₄/C	-67.8	5.90 (2.7 mm)	2,16	35	[85]
		Mo₂C/C	-49.19	4.56 (1.7 mm)	2.6	20	[86]
		Cu₉S₅/C	-62.3	4.7 (1.6 mm)	1.3	45	[62]
		Co/NC	-56.92	5.75 (1.8 mm)	2.1	27	[87]
		Co/N/C	-27.2	5.97 (1.88 mm)	6.68	15	[88]
		Fe₃O₄@NPC	-65.5	4.5	3	40	[89]
		Co₂Ni₁/C	-52	4.5	3	5	[90]
		CoFe/C	-44.6	5.5	2.15	40	[91]
		NiFe/C	-41	4.8	1.65	40	[91]
		CoO/Co/C	-66.7	5.1 (1.8 mm)	3.3	25	[92]
		Co/C	-30.31	4.93	3	25	[93]
		Fe-N/C	-30.98	5.04	1.7	33.3	[94]
		Co/ZrO₂/C	-57.2	11.9	3.3	50	[26]
	Hollow polyhedron	CoNi@NG-NCPs	-47.79	4.54 (2.5 mm)	3	35	[95]
		CoNi/C	-61.02	5.2	2	10	[96]
		Co@NCNs	-60.6	5.1 (1.9 mm)	2.4	10	[97]
		Co-C@C	-58.1	5.7 (2 mm)	2.5	25	[98]
		Co/N PC	-53.24	5.93	2.4	15	[28]
	Hollow cubes	Co/N/C@MnO₂	-58.9	5.5	3.7	15	[77]
		NiCo@C	-68.4	5.8 (2 mm)	2.14	40	[99]
		HPCMCs	-60.7	3.9 (1.5 mm)	3.2	30	[100]
		CoFe@C	-44.1	5.2 (2.3 mm)	5.8	40	[101]
		Gd₂O₃/MnO/C	-64.4	6.6 (2.09 mm)	1.44	50	[102]
	Hollow sphere	Co/C	-66.5	4.4 (2 mm)	1.53	30	[103]
		Co/C@V₂O₃	-40.1	4.64	1.5	50	[104]
		HBN-Co/C	-42.3	5.1 (1.7 mm)	1.9	-	[105]
		Ni/C	-57.25	5.1	1.8	30	[106]
		CoNi@C	-44.8	4.0 (2.4 mm)	3.2	30	[107]
		FeCoNi@C	-69.03	8.08	2.47	38	[108]
	Core-shell nanostructures	Ni@C@ZnO	-55.8	4.1	2.5	25	[114]
		Ni@C	-59.5	4.7	4.5	25	[115]
		CF@C/Co	-71.95	6.25 (1.71 mm)	1.78	20	[116]
		Fe₃O₄@Zn-N-Carbon	-61.9	11.5	2.5	83	[117]
	Yolk-shell nanostructures	C-ZIF-67@TiO₂	-51.7	4.2	1.65	50	[118]
		Co₃O₄/NC@CoNi_x	-71.15	5	1.71	50	[119]
		Co/NPC@Void@CI	-49.2	6.72	2.2	40	[120]
		Co-C/Void/Co₉S₈	-54.02	8.2	2.2	25	[121]
1D Structures	Nanorods	Co/C	-47.6	5.11	2.0	33	[122]
		Fe₃O₄/ Fe₃C/ Fe-NPs/NPC	-52.9	4.64	3.07	40	[30]
		NiCo alloy/carbon nanorods@CNTs	-58.8	6.5	2.6	5	[123]
	Nanofibers	FMCFs	-39.2	4.44	1.4	40	[40]
	Nanofibers	TCNFs/Co/NPC	-54.1	6.2	2	8	[67]
	Nanowires	MOFs/SiC NWs	-47	5.92 (2 mm)	3	10	[124]
	Nanospindle	Fe/C	-27.1	1.6	4.32	-	[125]
	Nanospindle	Fe/Fe₃C/C	-14.4	4.5	2	-	[125]
	Tubes on rods	Mo₂N@CoFe@C/CNT	-53.5	5.0	2	20	[27]
2D Structures	Nanosheets(Self-templating)	Co@C	-49.76	5.44	1.76	30	[21]
		Co@SC@MNC	-72.3	6	2.6	20	[126]
		CoNi@C	-43.7	5.7 (1.8 mm)	1.7	20	[127]
	Nanosheets(External-templating)	CoNi@NC/rGO	-68	6.7	2	25	[39]
		rGO-CoFe@C	-36.08	5.17 (3.5 mm)	3	10	[37]
		Fe/Co/NC/rGO	-43.26	9.29	2.5	25	[128]
		Fe&TiO₂@C	-51.8	6.5 (1.6 mm)	3	40	[64]
		MXene/Co-CZIF	-60.09	9.3	2.7	50	[130]
		MXene/Ni-CZIF	-64.11	4.56	3.0	50	[130]
	Nanosheets (Intrinsic 2D MOF)	Iron-Quinoid MOF	-73.5	6.1	3.3	30	[23]
3D Structures	Sponge	CNT/FeCoNi@C	-51.7	6.8 (1 mm)	3	30	[133]
	Foam	hollow Ni/C microsphere@GF	-63	5.4 (2 mm)	1.76	15	[134]
	Tree blossom	Ni/NC/C	-63.1	4.16	2	16	[135]
	Flower structure	Ni/C	-52.4	5	1.6	30	[137]
		ML-Ni/C	-65.33	7.6 (2.8 mm)	2.4	20	[138]
		CNF@C-Ni	-49.77	5.44	2.2	5	[139]
	Jujube pit-shaped	C/Co	-41	5.6 (2 mm)	2.8	40	[140]
	Nested	CoFe@C	-61.8	9.2	2.8	10	[141]
	Honeycomb	Co/C	-50.7	4.6	2.9	10	[24]
Mixed-dimensional Structures	/	ZnO@MWCNTs	-47.4	3.7 (1.5 mm)	2.7	20	[22]
		Co@NC	-53	6.2 (2 mm)	1.8	-	[142]
		Co₉S₈/CNTs/MoS₂	-35.4	8.4 (3.8 mm)	4	9	[143]
		Ni₃ZnC_0.7/CNT/NPC	-66.6	7.76 (2.18 mm)	2.58	30	[66]
		CoNC/CNTs	-44.6	1.7	4.7	15	[29]
		HCF@NC/Co	-50.14	7.36 (2.7 mm)	2.25	14	[144]
		Co-NC@CF	-50.1	4.82	1.6	5	[61]
		MnO₂@NPC	-63.21	4.04	2.05	50	[145]

Table 1. Summary of EMW absorption performance of MOF-derived composites based on dimension and morphology.

Dimension	Morphology	Composition	RL (dB)	EAB (GHz)	Thick-ness (mm)	Filling ratio (wt.%)	Refs.
0D Structures	Polyhedra	N-doped porous carbon	-39.7	4.3	4	50	[82]
		CoO/NPC	-57.5	4.7	1.55	50	[83]
		ZrO₂/C	-58.7	5.5 (1.7 mm)	1.5	50	[84]
		TiO₂/ZrTiO₄/C	-67.8	5.90 (2.7 mm)	2,16	35	[85]
		Mo₂C/C	-49.19	4.56 (1.7 mm)	2.6	20	[86]
		Cu₉S₅/C	-62.3	4.7 (1.6 mm)	1.3	45	[62]
		Co/NC	-56.92	5.75 (1.8 mm)	2.1	27	[87]
		Co/N/C	-27.2	5.97 (1.88 mm)	6.68	15	[88]
		Fe₃O₄@NPC	-65.5	4.5	3	40	[89]
		Co₂Ni₁/C	-52	4.5	3	5	[90]
		CoFe/C	-44.6	5.5	2.15	40	[91]
		NiFe/C	-41	4.8	1.65	40	[91]
		CoO/Co/C	-66.7	5.1 (1.8 mm)	3.3	25	[92]
		Co/C	-30.31	4.93	3	25	[93]
		Fe-N/C	-30.98	5.04	1.7	33.3	[94]
		Co/ZrO₂/C	-57.2	11.9	3.3	50	[26]
	Hollow polyhedron	CoNi@NG-NCPs	-47.79	4.54 (2.5 mm)	3	35	[95]
		CoNi/C	-61.02	5.2	2	10	[96]
		Co@NCNs	-60.6	5.1 (1.9 mm)	2.4	10	[97]
		Co-C@C	-58.1	5.7 (2 mm)	2.5	25	[98]
		Co/N PC	-53.24	5.93	2.4	15	[28]
	Hollow cubes	Co/N/C@MnO₂	-58.9	5.5	3.7	15	[77]
		NiCo@C	-68.4	5.8 (2 mm)	2.14	40	[99]
		HPCMCs	-60.7	3.9 (1.5 mm)	3.2	30	[100]
		CoFe@C	-44.1	5.2 (2.3 mm)	5.8	40	[101]
		Gd₂O₃/MnO/C	-64.4	6.6 (2.09 mm)	1.44	50	[102]
	Hollow sphere	Co/C	-66.5	4.4 (2 mm)	1.53	30	[103]
		Co/C@V₂O₃	-40.1	4.64	1.5	50	[104]
		HBN-Co/C	-42.3	5.1 (1.7 mm)	1.9	-	[105]
		Ni/C	-57.25	5.1	1.8	30	[106]
		CoNi@C	-44.8	4.0 (2.4 mm)	3.2	30	[107]
		FeCoNi@C	-69.03	8.08	2.47	38	[108]
	Core-shell nanostructures	Ni@C@ZnO	-55.8	4.1	2.5	25	[114]
		Ni@C	-59.5	4.7	4.5	25	[115]
		CF@C/Co	-71.95	6.25 (1.71 mm)	1.78	20	[116]
		Fe₃O₄@Zn-N-Carbon	-61.9	11.5	2.5	83	[117]
	Yolk-shell nanostructures	C-ZIF-67@TiO₂	-51.7	4.2	1.65	50	[118]
		Co₃O₄/NC@CoNi_x	-71.15	5	1.71	50	[119]
		Co/NPC@Void@CI	-49.2	6.72	2.2	40	[120]
		Co-C/Void/Co₉S₈	-54.02	8.2	2.2	25	[121]
1D Structures	Nanorods	Co/C	-47.6	5.11	2.0	33	[122]
		Fe₃O₄/ Fe₃C/ Fe-NPs/NPC	-52.9	4.64	3.07	40	[30]
		NiCo alloy/carbon nanorods@CNTs	-58.8	6.5	2.6	5	[123]
	Nanofibers	FMCFs	-39.2	4.44	1.4	40	[40]
	Nanofibers	TCNFs/Co/NPC	-54.1	6.2	2	8	[67]
	Nanowires	MOFs/SiC NWs	-47	5.92 (2 mm)	3	10	[124]
	Nanospindle	Fe/C	-27.1	1.6	4.32	-	[125]
	Nanospindle	Fe/Fe₃C/C	-14.4	4.5	2	-	[125]
	Tubes on rods	Mo₂N@CoFe@C/CNT	-53.5	5.0	2	20	[27]
2D Structures	Nanosheets(Self-templating)	Co@C	-49.76	5.44	1.76	30	[21]
		Co@SC@MNC	-72.3	6	2.6	20	[126]
		CoNi@C	-43.7	5.7 (1.8 mm)	1.7	20	[127]
	Nanosheets(External-templating)	CoNi@NC/rGO	-68	6.7	2	25	[39]
		rGO-CoFe@C	-36.08	5.17 (3.5 mm)	3	10	[37]
		Fe/Co/NC/rGO	-43.26	9.29	2.5	25	[128]
		Fe&TiO₂@C	-51.8	6.5 (1.6 mm)	3	40	[64]
		MXene/Co-CZIF	-60.09	9.3	2.7	50	[130]
		MXene/Ni-CZIF	-64.11	4.56	3.0	50	[130]
	Nanosheets (Intrinsic 2D MOF)	Iron-Quinoid MOF	-73.5	6.1	3.3	30	[23]
3D Structures	Sponge	CNT/FeCoNi@C	-51.7	6.8 (1 mm)	3	30	[133]
	Foam	hollow Ni/C microsphere@GF	-63	5.4 (2 mm)	1.76	15	[134]
	Tree blossom	Ni/NC/C	-63.1	4.16	2	16	[135]
	Flower structure	Ni/C	-52.4	5	1.6	30	[137]
		ML-Ni/C	-65.33	7.6 (2.8 mm)	2.4	20	[138]
		CNF@C-Ni	-49.77	5.44	2.2	5	[139]
	Jujube pit-shaped	C/Co	-41	5.6 (2 mm)	2.8	40	[140]
	Nested	CoFe@C	-61.8	9.2	2.8	10	[141]
	Honeycomb	Co/C	-50.7	4.6	2.9	10	[24]
Mixed-dimensional Structures	/	ZnO@MWCNTs	-47.4	3.7 (1.5 mm)	2.7	20	[22]
		Co@NC	-53	6.2 (2 mm)	1.8	-	[142]
		Co₉S₈/CNTs/MoS₂	-35.4	8.4 (3.8 mm)	4	9	[143]
		Ni₃ZnC_0.7/CNT/NPC	-66.6	7.76 (2.18 mm)	2.58	30	[66]
		CoNC/CNTs	-44.6	1.7	4.7	15	[29]
		HCF@NC/Co	-50.14	7.36 (2.7 mm)	2.25	14	[144]
		Co-NC@CF	-50.1	4.82	1.6	5	[61]
		MnO₂@NPC	-63.21	4.04	2.05	50	[145]

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