Low-dimensional MXenes as noble metal-free co-catalyst for solar-to-fuel production: Progress and prospects

doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2021.10.029

Abstract

Abstract:

Direct conversion of solar energy into chemical fuels via semiconducting materials through photocatalytic technology is a sustainable way to tackle the global warming, environmental issue and energy crisis. Transition metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes), a newly emerging class of 2D layered materials, has gained tremendous attention as a noble metal-free co-catalyst for boosting photoreactivity due to its extraordinary characteristics like elemental abundance, excellent electrical conductivity, abundant surface functional groups, unique hydrophilic behavior and flexible modulation of chemical composition. The rational integration of low-dimensional MXenes in the form of 2D layered structures or 0D quantum dots with diverse semiconducting materials offer more versatile and robust heterostructured-photocatalysts that are applicable in solar fuel generation. Herein, we summarize the recent advances and achievements in the synthesis of low-dimensional MXenes and their application in hydrogen production from water splitting and CO₂ photoreduction. A comprehensive discussion of the fundamentals for solar fuel production, synthesis strategies and theoretical calculations for MXenes-based photocatalysts are also given. Finally, the existing challenges and further perspectives of MXenes-based nanostructures for efficient solar fuel production are addressed.

Key words: Mxenes, Low-dimensional materials, Co-catalyst, Photocatalytic H₂ evolution, CO₂ photoreduction

Wanying Lei, Tong Zhou, Xin Pang, Shixiang Xue, Quanlong Xu. Low-dimensional MXenes as noble metal-free co-catalyst for solar-to-fuel production: Progress and prospects[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2022, 114: 143-164.

Figures/Tables 15

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic illustration of typical process in photocatalytic solar fuel production. (b) Band edge positions of some representative semiconductor photocatalysts relative to the energy potentials of various redox couples at pH 7 versus a vacuum (left) and NHE (right).

Fig. 2. Timeline for the evolution in the synthesis method of 2D Mxenes (a) and 0D MXene QDs (b).

Fig. 3. (a) TEM image of Ti3C2Tx prepared by HF etching process. Reproduced with permission [14]. Copyright 2011, WILEY-VCH. (b) Schematic showing the synthesis procedure of Ti3C2Tx clay with variable shape by etching in LiF + HCl solution. (c) TEM image of several Ti3C2Tx flakes. Inset: Selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [32]. Copyright 2014, Macmillan Publishers Limited. (d) TEM image of Mo2CTx- Li after 6 days’ etching. Reproduced with permission [39]. Copyright 2016, WILEY-VCH. (e) XRD patterns of Ti3AlC2, Ti3C2Tx after HF etching, Ti3C2Tx-IC after etching in NH4HF2. Reproduced with permission [49]. Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society. (f) TEM image of Ti3C2Tx obtained by LiF + HCl with the ratio of 7.5:1. Reproduced with permission [58]. Copyright 2016, WILEY-VCH. (g) Schematic illustrating the intercalation and delamination process of Ti3C2Tx with the assist of TMAOH. Reproduced with permission [57]. Copyright 2016, WILEY-VCH. (h) Optical image of α-Mo2C growth onto a Cu/Mo substrate with different morphologies. (i) BF-STEM image of the produced α-Mo2C crystal. Green circles: Mo atoms, red circle: C atom. Reproduced with permission [62]. Copyright 2015, Macmillan Publishers Limited.

Fig. 4. (a) Schematic showing the hydrothermal synthesis of Ti3C2Tx QDs. (b) TEM image of Ti3C2Tx QDs. Inset: Statistical analysis of the lateral size of QDs. Reproduced with permission [69]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) The fabrication procedure of Ti3C2Tx QDs by combined probe sonication and bath sonication in TBAOH. (d) TEM image of Ti3C2Tx QDs. Inset: Statistic analysis of particle size of Ti3C2Tx QDs. (e) Statistic analysis of thickness of Ti3C2Tx QDs. Reproduced with permission [65]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. (f) Schematic illustrating the microexplosion process to construct 0D Ti3C2Tx QDs. (g) TEM image of Ti3C2Tx QDs. Inset: Statistic analysis of particle size of Ti3C2Tx QDs. (h) AFM image of Ti3C2Tx QDs. Reproduced with permission [68]. Copyright 2020, WILEY-VCH.

Fig. 5. (a) Schematic illustrating the preparation of Mo2C/C composites by molten salt method. TEM (b) and HRTEM (c) images of the obtained Mo2C/C nanohybrids. Inset: the corresponding fast-Fourier-transform (FFT) pattern. Reproduced with permission [71]. Copyright 2018, WILEY-VCH. SEM (d) and TEM (e) images of Mo2C/C polyhedrons synthesized by pyrolysis. Reproduced with permission [77]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.

Table 1. Summary of low-dimensional MXenes-based nanostructures for photocatalytic H2 evolution via water splitting.

Catalyst	Light source	Reaction condition	H₂ evolution Activity (µmol h^-1 g^-1)	AQE (%)	Refs.
TiO₂/Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp	CH₃OH(10%)+chloroplatinic acid (3%, 400 μL)	6979	NA	[80]
Ti₃C₂/TiO₂	350 W Xe lamp	Glycerinum (10 vol%, 80 mL)	120	0.9 (365 nm)	[81]
Ti₃C₂@TiO₂@MoS₂	300 W Xe lamp (AM 1.5)	TEOA	6425	4.61 (420 nm)	[82]
Ti₃C₂/P25	200 W Hg lamp (285 nm ≤ λ ≤ 325 nm)	CH₃OH (25 vol%, 40 mL)	2650	15.8 (305 nm)	[83]
Cu/TiO₂@Ti₃C₂(OH)_x	300 W Xe lamp (simulated sunlight)	CH₃OH (25 vol%, 7 vol%, 140 mL)	860	NA	[84]
TiO₂/Ti₃C₂/UiO-66-NH₂	300 W Xe lamp (350 nm < λ < 780 nm)	Na₂S/Na₂SO₃ (0.1 M/0.1 M, 50 mL)	1980	NA	[85]
PtO@Ti₃C₂/TiO₂	300 W Xe lamp	CH₃OH (50 vol%, 100 mL)	2540	4.2 (365 nm)	[123]
MoS₂/Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	CH₃OH (30 vol%, 50 mL)	6144	NA	[87]
Mo_xS@TiO₂@Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp (AM 1.5)	TEOA	10,506	7.54	[88]
Ti₃C₂/CdS	300 W Xe lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	Latic acid (18 vol%, 80 mL)	14,342	40.1 (420 nm)	[23]
CdS/Ti₃C₂	300 WXe lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	Latic acid (10 wt%, 50 mL)	2407	35.6 (420 nm)	[90]
CdS/Ti₃C₂T_x	300 WXe lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	Latic acid (10 wt%, 50 mL)	3226	47 (420 nm)	[124]
CdS@Ti₃C₂@CoO	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	H₂O (100 mL)	134.46	0.06 (500 nm)	[91]
Ti₃C₂@Au@CdS	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	Na₂S/Na₂SO₃ (0.35 M/0.25 M, 80 mL)	17,070	NA	[92]
Zn₂In₂S₅/Ti₃C₂(O, OH)_x	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	Na₂S/Na₂SO₃ (0.35 M/0.25 M, 100 mL), 2 wt% Pt	12,983.8	8.96 (420 nm)	[93]
Zn₂In₂S₅/MXene	300 W Xe lamp (λ ≥ 400 nm)	TEOA/H₂O mixture (40 mL, 10% vol TEOA)	3042.8	2.13 (400 nm)	[125]
ZnIn₂S₄/Ti₃C₂/ZnIn₂S₄	300 W Xe lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	TEOA (10 vol%, 40 mL), 3 wt% Pt	3475	11.14 (420 nm)	[94]
CdLa₂S₄/Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	Na₂S/Na₂SO₃ (0.35 M/0.25 M, 100 mL)	11,182.4	15.6 (420 nm)	[95]
g-C₃N₄/Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	TEOA (10 vol%, 100 mL)	116.2	NA	[97]
g-C₃N₄/Ti₃C₂/Pt	300 W Xe lamp (simulated sunlight)	TEOA (10 vol%, 50 mL)	5100	3.1 (420 nm)	[98]
g-C₃N₄/Ti₃C₂T_x	350 W Xe lamp (λ > 400 nm)	TEOA (10 vol%, 3 mL)	88	1.27	[99]
Ti₃C₂/g-C₃N₄	200 W Hg lamp (λ > 400 nm)	TEOA (10 vol%, 40 mL), 3 wt% Pt	72.3	NA	[100]
Ti₂C/g-C₃N₄	Solar simulated (AM 1.5)	TEOA (10 vol%, 85 mL)	950	4.3 (420 nm)	[101]
TiO₂/Nb₂CT_x	200 W Hg lamp (λ > 400 nm)	CH₃OH (25 vol%, 40 mL)	47	0.39	[102]
Nb₂O₅/C/Nb₂C	200 W Hg lamp (285 nm ≤ λ ≤ 325 nm)	CH₃OH (25 vol%, 40 mL)	7.81	0.11 (305 nm)	[103]
Ti₃C₂ QDs/g-C₃N₄	300 W Xe lamp (AM 1.5)	TEOA (15 vol%, 100 mL)	5111.8	3.654	[104]

Table 1. Summary of low-dimensional MXenes-based nanostructures for photocatalytic H2 evolution via water splitting.

Catalyst	Light source	Reaction condition	H₂ evolution Activity (µmol h^-1 g^-1)	AQE (%)	Refs.
TiO₂/Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp	CH₃OH(10%)+chloroplatinic acid (3%, 400 μL)	6979	NA	[80]
Ti₃C₂/TiO₂	350 W Xe lamp	Glycerinum (10 vol%, 80 mL)	120	0.9 (365 nm)	[81]
Ti₃C₂@TiO₂@MoS₂	300 W Xe lamp (AM 1.5)	TEOA	6425	4.61 (420 nm)	[82]
Ti₃C₂/P25	200 W Hg lamp (285 nm ≤ λ ≤ 325 nm)	CH₃OH (25 vol%, 40 mL)	2650	15.8 (305 nm)	[83]
Cu/TiO₂@Ti₃C₂(OH)_x	300 W Xe lamp (simulated sunlight)	CH₃OH (25 vol%, 7 vol%, 140 mL)	860	NA	[84]
TiO₂/Ti₃C₂/UiO-66-NH₂	300 W Xe lamp (350 nm < λ < 780 nm)	Na₂S/Na₂SO₃ (0.1 M/0.1 M, 50 mL)	1980	NA	[85]
PtO@Ti₃C₂/TiO₂	300 W Xe lamp	CH₃OH (50 vol%, 100 mL)	2540	4.2 (365 nm)	[123]
MoS₂/Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	CH₃OH (30 vol%, 50 mL)	6144	NA	[87]
Mo_xS@TiO₂@Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp (AM 1.5)	TEOA	10,506	7.54	[88]
Ti₃C₂/CdS	300 W Xe lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	Latic acid (18 vol%, 80 mL)	14,342	40.1 (420 nm)	[23]
CdS/Ti₃C₂	300 WXe lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	Latic acid (10 wt%, 50 mL)	2407	35.6 (420 nm)	[90]
CdS/Ti₃C₂T_x	300 WXe lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	Latic acid (10 wt%, 50 mL)	3226	47 (420 nm)	[124]
CdS@Ti₃C₂@CoO	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	H₂O (100 mL)	134.46	0.06 (500 nm)	[91]
Ti₃C₂@Au@CdS	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	Na₂S/Na₂SO₃ (0.35 M/0.25 M, 80 mL)	17,070	NA	[92]
Zn₂In₂S₅/Ti₃C₂(O, OH)_x	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	Na₂S/Na₂SO₃ (0.35 M/0.25 M, 100 mL), 2 wt% Pt	12,983.8	8.96 (420 nm)	[93]
Zn₂In₂S₅/MXene	300 W Xe lamp (λ ≥ 400 nm)	TEOA/H₂O mixture (40 mL, 10% vol TEOA)	3042.8	2.13 (400 nm)	[125]
ZnIn₂S₄/Ti₃C₂/ZnIn₂S₄	300 W Xe lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	TEOA (10 vol%, 40 mL), 3 wt% Pt	3475	11.14 (420 nm)	[94]
CdLa₂S₄/Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	Na₂S/Na₂SO₃ (0.35 M/0.25 M, 100 mL)	11,182.4	15.6 (420 nm)	[95]
g-C₃N₄/Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	TEOA (10 vol%, 100 mL)	116.2	NA	[97]
g-C₃N₄/Ti₃C₂/Pt	300 W Xe lamp (simulated sunlight)	TEOA (10 vol%, 50 mL)	5100	3.1 (420 nm)	[98]
g-C₃N₄/Ti₃C₂T_x	350 W Xe lamp (λ > 400 nm)	TEOA (10 vol%, 3 mL)	88	1.27	[99]
Ti₃C₂/g-C₃N₄	200 W Hg lamp (λ > 400 nm)	TEOA (10 vol%, 40 mL), 3 wt% Pt	72.3	NA	[100]
Ti₂C/g-C₃N₄	Solar simulated (AM 1.5)	TEOA (10 vol%, 85 mL)	950	4.3 (420 nm)	[101]
TiO₂/Nb₂CT_x	200 W Hg lamp (λ > 400 nm)	CH₃OH (25 vol%, 40 mL)	47	0.39	[102]
Nb₂O₅/C/Nb₂C	200 W Hg lamp (285 nm ≤ λ ≤ 325 nm)	CH₃OH (25 vol%, 40 mL)	7.81	0.11 (305 nm)	[103]
Ti₃C₂ QDs/g-C₃N₄	300 W Xe lamp (AM 1.5)	TEOA (15 vol%, 100 mL)	5111.8	3.654	[104]

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic showing the synthesis procedure for the preparation of Ti3C2/TiO2 nanohybrids. TEM images of Ti3C2/TiO2 nanohybrids containing Ti3C2 with -F termination groups and -OH groups in the right. (b) Proposed photocatalytic mechanism of Ti3C2/TiO2 composites. Reproduced with permission [81]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Photoreactivity of Ti3C2@TiO2@MoS2 catalysts. (d) SEM image of Ti3C2@TiO2@MoS2 nanohybrids. (e) A schematic illustration showing the charge separation and transfer processes in Ti3C2@TiO2@MoS2 nanohybrids under solar light excitation. Reproduced with permission [82]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. (f) TEM image of monolayer Ti3C2. Inset: HRTEM. (g) Photocatalytic H2 evolution rates of the prepared TiO2, TC/TO with Ti3C2 monolayer, MTC/TO Ti3C2 multi-layer. Reproduced with permission [83]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. Schematic illustrating the charge carrier transfer at the interface of Cu/TiO2@Ti3C2(OH)x. (h) during and (i) after the induction step of photoreaction, respectively. Reproduced with permission [84]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

Fig. 7. (a) Proposed photocatalytic mechanism toward H2 production of MoxS@TiO2@Ti3C2 nanostructures. (b) Photocatalytic H2 evolution rates of the as-prepared MoS2@TiO2@Ti3C2, MoxS@TiO2@Ti3C2 and TiO2, respectively. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (c) Visible-light induced photoreactivity of CdS, Ti3C2 nanoparticles and CdS-based hybrids. Reproduced with permission [23]. Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. (d) Scheme for the energy level and charge separation in CdS@Ti3C2@CoO hierarchic tandem p-n heterojunction photocatalysts. Reproduced with permission [91]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. SEM (e) and HRTEM (f) images of Zn2In2S5/Ti3C2(O, OH)x hybrid. In 3d (g) and O 1s (h) XPS spectra of Zn2In2S5/Ti3C2(O, OH)x hybrid. Reproduced with permission [93]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. (i) SEM image of ZnIn2S4/Ti3C2/ZnIn2S4 composites. Reproduced with permission [94]. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. Ti 2p (j) and O 1s (k) XPS spectra of g-C3N4/Ti3C2 hybrids. Reproduced with permission [99]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry. (l) HRTEM image of Nb2O5/C/Nb2C composites. (m) Schematic showing the photocatalytic mechanism for Nb2O5/C/Nb2C. Reproduced with permission [103]. Copyright 2018, WILEY-VCH.

Fig. 8. (a) Band edge positions of Ti2CO2, Zr2CO2, Hf2CO2, Sc2CF2 and Sc2CO2 with respect to the redox potentials of H+/H2 and H2O/O2. (b) The imaginary part of the dielectric function of Zr2CO2 and Hf2CO2. (c) The respective electron and hole mobility for Zr2CO2 and Hf2CO2 as a function of x- and y-directions. (d) Schematic illustration for separation of charge carriers. Reproduced with permission [105]. Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry. (e) Top and side views of the bare and O-functionalized Ti2C MXenes. Reproduced with permission [106]. Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry. (f) The band edge positions of the unstrained and respective strained monolayer Ti2CO2 (yellow), Zr2CO2 (green) and Hf2CO2 (magneta). Reproduced with permission [107]. Copyright 2017, the Owner Societies. The band edge positions of monolayer, bilayer, trilayer and tetralayer (g) Zr2CO2 and (h) Hf2CO2. (i) The different surface potential of monolayer Sc2CO2. Reproduced with permission [108]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. (j) The imaginary part of the dielectric function of (Zr0.5Hf0.5)2CO2. Reproduced with permission [109]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (k) Optical absorption of InSe, Zr2CO2 monolayers and InSe/Zr2CO2 nanostructures. (l) Schematic showing the mechanism of photocatalytic overall water splitting for InSe/Zr2CO2 nanostructures. Reproduced with permission [110]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

Table 2. Summary of low-dimensional MXenes-based nanostructures for photocatalytic CO2 reduction.

Catalyst	Light source	Reaction condition	CO₂ photoreduction			Refs.
Catalyst	Light source	Reaction condition	CO evolution rate (µmol h^-1 g^-1)	CH₄ evolution rate (µmol h^-1 g ^{- 1})	CH₃OH evolution rate (µmol h^-1 g ^{- 1})	Refs.
TiO₂/Ti₃C₂	300 W Xe lamp (simulated sunlight)	NaHCO₃ (0.084 g) + HCl (4 M, 0.3 mL)		4.4		[114]
Ti₃C₂/g-C₃N₄	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	NaHCO₃ (1.26 g) + H₂SO₄ (2 M, 4 mL)	5.19	0.044		[115]
Bi₂WO₆/Ti₃C₂	Solar simulator	NaHCO₃ (0.084 g) + H₂SO₄ (2 M, 0.3 mL)		1.78	0.44	[116]
CeO₂/Ti₃C₂/TiO₂	300 W Xe lamp	5 mL H₂O		4.4		[126]
Co-Co LDH/Ti₃C₂T_x	5 W LED lamp (400 nm < λ < 1000 nm)	[Ru(bpy)₃]Cl₂·6H₂O (7.5 mg) + MeCN/H₂O/TEOA (3 mL/2 mL/1 mL)	12,500			[117]
NiAl-LDH/ Ti₃C₂T_x	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	[Ru(bpy)₃]Cl₂·6H₂O (7.5 mg) + MeCN/H₂O/TEOA (6 mL/4 mL/2 qmL)	2182.46			[127]
Ti₃C₂/g-C₃N₄	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	15 mL H₂O with a polytetrafluoroethylene inner tank		0.99		[118]
Ti₃C₂/g-C₃N₄	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	CO₂ + H₂O	11.21 µmol g^-1			[119]
Ti₃C₂/B-dopedg-C₃N₄	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	CO₂ gas	2.88	7.1		[128]
g-C₃N₄/Bt/Ti₃C₂	35 W HID lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	CO₂ + H₂O	326	230		[120]
	35 W HID lamp without UV filter	CO₂ + H₂O	423.8	460
	35 W HID lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm)	CO₂ + Acetic acid (10 vol%)	719	1909
Ti₃C₂ QDs/Cu₂O	300 W Xe lamp	CO₂ + H₂O		78.5		[76]
g-C₃N₄/Ti₃C₂	350 W Xe lamp	NaHCO₃ (0.084 g) + H₂SO₄ (2 M, 0.3 mL)	4.39	1.2		[121]

Fig. 9. SEM (a) and HRTEM (b) images of TiO2/Ti3C2 nanohybrids. (c) Photocatalytic reactivity of pristine TiO2 and TiO2/Ti3C2 nanohybrids. (d) Proposed photocatalytic mechanism of TiO2/Ti3C2 nanohybrids. Reproduced with permission [114]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier. (e) AFM image of Ti3C2/g-C3N4 composites. Inset: the corresponding height profiles marked in (e). (f) CO production rates of pristine ultrathin g-C3N4 and Ti3C2/g-C3N4 composites. Reproduced with permission [115]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic showing the preparation of 2D/2D Ti3C2/Bi2WO6 heterostructred-photocatalysts. (b) Proposed mechanism of CO2 photoreduction for Ti3C2/Bi2WO6. (c) Methane and methanol evolution rates from CO2 reduction in the presence of pristine Bi2WO6 and Ti3C2/Bi2WO6 nanostructures. Reproduced with permission [116]. Copyright 2018, WILEY-VCH. (d) Schematic illustration of the synthetic process of 3D Co-Co LDH/Ti3C2Tx nanocomposites. (e) Proposed photocatalytic mechanism of CO2 photoreduction for Co-Co LDH/Ti3C2Tx in the presence of Ru-based compound. Reproduced with permission [117]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Fig. 11. Low-magnification (a) and high-magnification (b) of SEM images of 0D/1D Ti3C2/Cu2O nanostructures. (c) TEM image of Ti3C2/Cu2O nanostructures. Inset: TEM image of the magnified region marked in square. (d) Production of methanol as a function of time. Reproduced with permission [76]. Copyright 2018, WILEY-VCH. SEM (e) and HRTEM (f) images of 2D/2D/0D TiO2/g-C3N4/Ti3C2 heterostructures. The proposed mechanism of electron transfer in S-scheme heterojunction of TiO2/g-C3N4/Ti3C2: (g) before contact, (h) after contact, and (i) after contact upon illumination. Reproduced with permission [121]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 12. (a) Proposed two reaction pathways for CO2 reduction. (b) Energy barriers calculation of hydrogenation of CO2 at Ov in monolayer Ti2CO2. I: CO2 → HCOO; Ⅱ: HCOO → HCOOH; the blue lines denote as desorption of HCOOH. Ⅲ: HCOOH → H2COOH; Ⅳ: H2COOH → HCHO + H2O. Reproduced with permission [122]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 13. Perspectives of the ongoing research directions for MXenes-based heterostructured photocatalysts.

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