J. Mater. Sci. Technol. ›› 2022, Vol. 100: 224-236.DOI: 10.1016/j.jmst.2021.06.011
• Research Article • Previous Articles Next Articles
Zhiyuan Liua,*(), Dandan Zhaoa, Pei Wanga, Ming Yanb, Can Yangc, Zhangwei Chena, Jian Lud,e, Zhaoping Luf
Received:
2021-04-21
Revised:
2021-06-12
Accepted:
2021-06-13
Published:
2022-02-20
Online:
2022-02-15
Contact:
Zhiyuan Liu
About author:
*E-mail address: zyliu@szu.edu.cn (Z. Liu).Zhiyuan Liu, Dandan Zhao, Pei Wang, Ming Yan, Can Yang, Zhangwei Chen, Jian Lu, Zhaoping Lu. Additive manufacturing of metals: Microstructure evolution and multistage control[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2022, 100: 224-236.
AM | Powder bed fusion | Directed energy deposition | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Techniques | Selective laser melting | Electron beam melting | Laser engineered net shaping | Wire arc additive manufacturing |
Parameters | Laser power Scan speed Hatch spacing Layer thickness | Electron beam power Scan speed Hatch spacing Layer thickness Pre-heat temperature | Laser power Powder feed rate Scan speed Hatch spacing Layer thickness | Wire diameter Wire feed rate Travel speed Arc power |
Typical output power (W) | 100 - 600 | 500 - 3000 | 1000 - 3000 | 1000 - 5000 |
Beam spot size (mm) | 0.04 - 0.5 | 0.4 - 1 | 1 - 3 | 1 - 10 |
Characteristic size of melt pool (mm) | ~ 0.1 | ~ 0.1 | ~0.1 | ~1 |
Temperature gradient (K/mm) | 103 - 104 | 102 - 103 | 102 - 104 | 10 - 200 |
Cooling rate (K/s) | 105 - 107 | 103 - 105 | 103 - 104 | 102 - 103 |
Main features | High precision, Wide applicability. | Vacuum chamber, Low residual stress. | Multi-material printing, Large component fabrication ability. | High deposition rates, Large component fabrication ability. |
References | [ | [ | [ | [ |
Table 1 Characteristic features of various fusion-based additive manufacturing techniques.
AM | Powder bed fusion | Directed energy deposition | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Techniques | Selective laser melting | Electron beam melting | Laser engineered net shaping | Wire arc additive manufacturing |
Parameters | Laser power Scan speed Hatch spacing Layer thickness | Electron beam power Scan speed Hatch spacing Layer thickness Pre-heat temperature | Laser power Powder feed rate Scan speed Hatch spacing Layer thickness | Wire diameter Wire feed rate Travel speed Arc power |
Typical output power (W) | 100 - 600 | 500 - 3000 | 1000 - 3000 | 1000 - 5000 |
Beam spot size (mm) | 0.04 - 0.5 | 0.4 - 1 | 1 - 3 | 1 - 10 |
Characteristic size of melt pool (mm) | ~ 0.1 | ~ 0.1 | ~0.1 | ~1 |
Temperature gradient (K/mm) | 103 - 104 | 102 - 103 | 102 - 104 | 10 - 200 |
Cooling rate (K/s) | 105 - 107 | 103 - 105 | 103 - 104 | 102 - 103 |
Main features | High precision, Wide applicability. | Vacuum chamber, Low residual stress. | Multi-material printing, Large component fabrication ability. | High deposition rates, Large component fabrication ability. |
References | [ | [ | [ | [ |
Fig. 2. (a) Schematic of the formation and binding of melt pools during additive manufacturing. (b) Processing map of additive manufacturing that integrates the energy and geometry terms. Note that Em* and Eb* correspond to the energies needed to heat the metallic powder to its melting and boiling temperatures, respectively.
Fig. 3. Microstructure evolution of metals fabricated by additive manufacturing. Solidification structures include primary columnar grains (a) [75] and secondary phases sparsely distributed along the columnar grain boundaries (b) [76]. Post-solidification structures include dislocation cells (c) [77] and nanoprecipitates in the matrix (d) [78]. (e) Complex thermal history contributing to the formation of multistage microstructures during additive manufacturing.
Fig. 4. (a) Schematic of columnar and equiaxed grain growth at the solid-liquid interface during rapid solidification [81]. (b) Solute segregation in front of the solid-liquid interface due to different solubilities of the solute in the liquid and solid phases. (c) A portion of a typical phase diagram displaying constitutional supercooling. (d) Constitutional supercooling caused by solute segregation at the front of solid-liquid interface. (e) Schematic showing the columnar to equiaxed transformation for additive manufacturing [82].
Fig. 5. (a) Schematic showing the interdendritic secondary phases that form in the final stage of solidification during additive manufacturing. (b) Scanning electron microscopy image of the interdendritic Si phase in an Al 4047 alloy fabricated by DED [109]. (c) Interdendritic δ phase that formed owing to segregation of Nb in IN 718 fabricated by DED [76]. (d) Electron backscatter diffraction phase map shown the interdendritic BCC phase that formed owing to Al atom segregation in an SLM printed Al0.5CoCrFeNi high-entropy alloy [110]. (e) Discontinuous Cu-rich precipitates with periodic arrangements in an Ag-Cu-Ge alloy [111].
Fig. 6. Experimental observations and schematics of the dislocation cell formation process during additive manufacturing. Additively manufactured 316L with different degrees of constraints [77]: (a) 1D constraint, (b) 2D constraint, and (c) 3D constraint. Formation process of dislocation cells, replotted based on ref [77]: (d) initial stage after solidification with a small number of dislocations, (e) higher density of dislocations induced by expansion and contraction during cyclic heating, (f) dislocation cell formation induced by the clustering of high-density dislocations, and (g) microsegregation of the solute atoms to some dislocation cell boundaries.
Fig. 7. Nanoprecipitation induced by extension of the interlayer pause time in the Fe19Ni5Ti alloy due to the intrinsic heat treatment effect. (a) Optical micrograph showing the sandwich structure with soft and hard regions. Atom probe tomography (APT) analysis of Ti atom maps of a 5 nm thick slice through the reconstructed volume in the (b) soft and (c) hard regions. Left maps show APT reconstructions from austenite, and right maps show those from martensite [122].
Fig. 8. (a) Schematic of the supersaturated solid solution formed by the rapid solidification process of additive manufacturing (abbreviated as AM in the figure). (b) Composition fluctuation at melt pool boundaries of a titanium alloy [128].
Fig. 9. Site-specific microstructures of (a-c) single- and (d-h) multi-material alloy obtained by additive manufacturing [135], [136], [137], [138], [139], [140].
Alloy | Design | Composition design mechanism | References |
---|---|---|---|
Al7075 | Si addition | Reduce the crack sensitivity through the formation of a new low melting point eutectic and the grain refining. | [ |
Ti6Al4V | Mo addition | Increase solute distribution, stabilize the β phase, and enlarge the solidification range. | [ |
Pure Ti | Cu addition | Expand the constitutional supercooling zone and promote heterogeneous nucleation events. | [ |
La addition | Reduce texture through peritectic reaction, and promote formation of equiaxed microstructures. | [ | |
CoCrFeNi | Al addition | Reduce hot tearing by relieving the local residual strain through the formation of a new phase. | [ |
ABD-850AM | New design | Reduce freezing range and improve resistance to processing-related cracking. | [ |
Table. 2 Some alloys optimized and redesigned for additive manufacturing.
Alloy | Design | Composition design mechanism | References |
---|---|---|---|
Al7075 | Si addition | Reduce the crack sensitivity through the formation of a new low melting point eutectic and the grain refining. | [ |
Ti6Al4V | Mo addition | Increase solute distribution, stabilize the β phase, and enlarge the solidification range. | [ |
Pure Ti | Cu addition | Expand the constitutional supercooling zone and promote heterogeneous nucleation events. | [ |
La addition | Reduce texture through peritectic reaction, and promote formation of equiaxed microstructures. | [ | |
CoCrFeNi | Al addition | Reduce hot tearing by relieving the local residual strain through the formation of a new phase. | [ |
ABD-850AM | New design | Reduce freezing range and improve resistance to processing-related cracking. | [ |
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