Microstructural homogeneity and mechanical behavior of a selective laser melted Ti-35Nb alloy produced from an elemental powder mixture

doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2020.05.052

Abstract

Abstract:

Although using elemental powder mixtures may provide broad alloy selection at low cost for selective laser melting (SLM), there is still a concern on the resultant microstructural and chemical homogeneity of the produced parts. Hence, this work investigates the microstructure and mechanical properties of a SLM-produced Ti-35Nb composite (in wt%) using elemental powder. The microstructural characteristics including β phase, undissolved Nb particles and chemical homogeneity were detailed investigated. Nanoindentation revealed the presence of relatively soft undissolved Nb particles and weak interface bonding around Nb-rich regions in as-SLMed samples. Solid-solution treatment can not only improve chemical homogeneity but also enhance bonding through grain boundary strengthening, resulting in ~43 % increase in tensile elongation for the heat-treated Ti-35Nb compared to the as-SLMed counterpart. The analyses of tensile fractures and shear bands further confirmed the correlation between the different phases and the ductility of Ti-35Nb. In particular, the weak bonding between undissolved Nb and the matrix in the as-SLMed sample reduces its ductility while the β grains in solid-solution treated Ti-Nb alloy can induce a relatively stable plastic flow therefore better ductility. This work sheds insight into the understanding of homogenization of microstructure and phases of SLM-produced alloys from an elemental powder mixture.

Key words: Titanium-niobium, Selective laser melting, Microstructure, Nanoindentation, Mechanical behavior

Jincheng Wang, Yujing Liu, Chirag Dhirajlal Rabadia, Shun-Xing Liang, Timothy Barry Sercombe, Lai-Chang Zhang. Microstructural homogeneity and mechanical behavior of a selective laser melted Ti-35Nb alloy produced from an elemental powder mixture[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2021, 61: 221-233.

Figures/Tables 14

Fig. 1. (a) Powder particle size distribution of elemental powder mixture (Ti-35Nb), elemental Nb and CP-Ti powder, (b) morphology of the powder mixture, and (c) EDS analysis of the chemical composition for the powder mixture (Ti-35Nb).

Table 1 SLM manufacturing parameters used in this work and the corresponding relative densities measured by Archimedes method.

Parameters	Value	Value	Value	Value	Value
Laser power (W)	200	200	200	200	200
Laser scanning speed (mm/s)	500	625	750	1000	1250
Hatch space (μm)	100	100	100	100	100
Layer thickness (μm)	50	50	50	50	50
Energy density (J/mm³)	80	64	53	40	32
Relative density (%)	99.0 ± 0.4	98.3 ± 0.4	98.1 ± 0.6	96.8 ± 1.4	96.2 ± 1.1

Fig. 2. XRD patterns of CP-Ti, Nb, powder mixture (Ti-35Nb), as-SLMed Ti-35Nb and heat-treated Ti-35Nb.

Fig. 3. (a) SEM microstructure image of as-SLMed Ti-35Nb composite and its EDS elemental mappings of (b) Ti and (c) Nb, (d) EDS spectrum for the location ‘d’ indicated in (a).

Fig. 4. The micro-CT 3D surface microstructures of (a) as-SLMed Ti-35Nb and the corresponding reconstructed images (c) and (e) the undissolved Nb particles, (b) heat-treated Ti-35Nb and the corresponding reconstructed images of (d) and (f) the undissolved Nb particles. (Heat treatment under Ar at 1000 °C for 24 h, and air cooled).

Fig. 5. Backscattered SEM images of Ti-35Nb: (a)-(b) as-SLMed sample, and (c)-(d) heat-treated counterpart, (e)-(f) EDS line analyses for the lines indicated in (b) and (d) respectively. (Heat treatment under Ar at 1000 °C for 24 h, and air cooled).

Fig. 6. (a) SEM image of the indentation spots for as-SLMed Ti-35Nb, and corresponding (c) reduced elastic modulus (Er) mapping and (e) nano-hardness mapping; (b) SEM image of indentation spots for heat-treated Ti-35Nb, and corresponding (d) reduced elastic modulus (Er) mapping and (f) nano-hardness mapping.

Fig. 7. Nanoindentation load-displacement curves of (a) as-SLMed Ti-35Nb and (b) heat-treated counterpart. The insets are SEM images show the individual indents.

Fig. 8. Backscattered SEM images of an indent pattern (Vickers hardness) for (a)-(b) as-SLMed Ti-35Nb and (c)-(d) heat-treated counterpart. In (b) and (d), a magnified image from the dashed box in (a) and (c), respectively.

Fig. 9. The engineering tensile stress-strain curves for the as-SLMed Ti-35Nb samples and their heat-treated counterparts (inset shows the fractured samples after tensile test).

Table 2 Comparison of mechanical properties of SLM-produced Ti-35Nb and other titanium alloys.

Material (wt%)	Process	Powder type	Micro structure	Vickers hardness (HV)	Test	Young’s modulus (GPa)	Yield strength (MPa)	Ultimate strength (MPa)	Elongation (%)	Ref.
Ti-35Nb	SLM	Tumbler mixed	Nb/α/α”/β	274 ± 7	Tensile	84 ± 2	648 ± 13	803 ± 33	3.9 ± 1.1	This work
Heat-treated Ti-35Nb (1000 °C)	SLM		Nb/α/α”/β	311 ± 16		86 ± 2	602 ± 14	713 ± 17	5.6 ± 1.9	This work
CP-Ti (Grade 2)	SLM	Prealloyed	α	213 ± 11	Tensile	112 ± 3	620 ± 20	703 ± 16	5.2 ± 0.3	[68]
Ti-35Nb	SLM	Tumbler mixed	Nb/α/β	240 ± 15	Compressive	84.7 ± 1.2	660 ± 13	-	38.5 ± 1.5	[12]
Annealed Ti-35Nb	SLM		Nb/α/β	252 ± 10		-	640 ± 12	-	47.3 ± 1.1
Ti-16Nb	Sintering	Tumbler mixed	α/β	~340	-	~102	-	-	-	[14]
Ti-28Nb			α/β	~303	-	~100	-	-	-
Ti-40Nb			α/β	~325	-	~105	-	-	-
Ti-36.7Nb	Sintering	Ball milling	Nb/α/β	280	-	-	-	-	-	[46]
Ti-40Nb (porous)	SLM	Ball milling	α/α”/β	-	Compressive	33 ± 2	-	968 ± 8	-	[50]
	Hot pressing	Ball milling	α/β/ω	-		77 ± 3	-	1400 ± 19	-
Ti-25.5Nb	SLM	Ball milling	α'/β	312 ± 4	Tensile	-	501 ± 30	751 ± 14	-	[45]
Ti-39.3Nb			Nb/β	297 ± 3		-	516 ± 58	923 ± 38	-
Ti-61.3Nb			Nb/β	356 ± 7		-	583 ± 67	1030 ± 40	-
Ti-40.5Nb	SLM	Ball milling	Nb/α/β	266 ± 5	-	77 ± 0.4	-	-	-	[16]
Ti-40Nb	Sintering	Ball milling	α/β	-	-	-	-	-	-	[51]
Ti-45Nb		Milling prealloyed	β	-	-	-	-	-	-
Ti-25Nb-22Al (annealed at 1350 ° C)	SLM	Tumbler mixed	Nb/Al/α/ O/α₂/B₂/β	-	Tensile	-	-	286	-	[52]
Ti-25Nb-22Al	Sintering	Ball milling	Nb/O/α₂/B₂/β	-	Tensile	-	353 - 586	464 - 690	2.6 -5.0	[78]
Ti-45Nb	SLM	Prealloyed	β	~211	-	-	-	-	-	[17]
Ti-24Nb-4Zr-8Sn	SLM	Prealloyed	-	220 ± 6	Tensile	53 ± 1	563 ± 38	665 ± 18	13.8 ± 4.1	[41]
Ti-25Nb-3Zr-3Mo-2Sn	SLM	Prealloyed	β	202-230	Tensile	-	592 ± 21	716 ± 14	37 ± 5.0	[26]
Ti-13Nb-13Zr	SLM	Prealloyed	α'/β	429-479	Tensile	65	794 ± 15	996 ± 13	5 ± 0.3	[79]

Table 2 Comparison of mechanical properties of SLM-produced Ti-35Nb and other titanium alloys.

Material (wt%)	Process	Powder type	Micro structure	Vickers hardness (HV)	Test	Young’s modulus (GPa)	Yield strength (MPa)	Ultimate strength (MPa)	Elongation (%)	Ref.
Ti-35Nb	SLM	Tumbler mixed	Nb/α/α”/β	274 ± 7	Tensile	84 ± 2	648 ± 13	803 ± 33	3.9 ± 1.1	This work
Heat-treated Ti-35Nb (1000 °C)	SLM		Nb/α/α”/β	311 ± 16		86 ± 2	602 ± 14	713 ± 17	5.6 ± 1.9	This work
CP-Ti (Grade 2)	SLM	Prealloyed	α	213 ± 11	Tensile	112 ± 3	620 ± 20	703 ± 16	5.2 ± 0.3	[68]
Ti-35Nb	SLM	Tumbler mixed	Nb/α/β	240 ± 15	Compressive	84.7 ± 1.2	660 ± 13	-	38.5 ± 1.5	[12]
Annealed Ti-35Nb	SLM		Nb/α/β	252 ± 10		-	640 ± 12	-	47.3 ± 1.1
Ti-16Nb	Sintering	Tumbler mixed	α/β	~340	-	~102	-	-	-	[14]
Ti-28Nb			α/β	~303	-	~100	-	-	-
Ti-40Nb			α/β	~325	-	~105	-	-	-
Ti-36.7Nb	Sintering	Ball milling	Nb/α/β	280	-	-	-	-	-	[46]
Ti-40Nb (porous)	SLM	Ball milling	α/α”/β	-	Compressive	33 ± 2	-	968 ± 8	-	[50]
	Hot pressing	Ball milling	α/β/ω	-		77 ± 3	-	1400 ± 19	-
Ti-25.5Nb	SLM	Ball milling	α'/β	312 ± 4	Tensile	-	501 ± 30	751 ± 14	-	[45]
Ti-39.3Nb			Nb/β	297 ± 3		-	516 ± 58	923 ± 38	-
Ti-61.3Nb			Nb/β	356 ± 7		-	583 ± 67	1030 ± 40	-
Ti-40.5Nb	SLM	Ball milling	Nb/α/β	266 ± 5	-	77 ± 0.4	-	-	-	[16]
Ti-40Nb	Sintering	Ball milling	α/β	-	-	-	-	-	-	[51]
Ti-45Nb		Milling prealloyed	β	-	-	-	-	-	-
Ti-25Nb-22Al (annealed at 1350 ° C)	SLM	Tumbler mixed	Nb/Al/α/ O/α₂/B₂/β	-	Tensile	-	-	286	-	[52]
Ti-25Nb-22Al	Sintering	Ball milling	Nb/O/α₂/B₂/β	-	Tensile	-	353 - 586	464 - 690	2.6 -5.0	[78]
Ti-45Nb	SLM	Prealloyed	β	~211	-	-	-	-	-	[17]
Ti-24Nb-4Zr-8Sn	SLM	Prealloyed	-	220 ± 6	Tensile	53 ± 1	563 ± 38	665 ± 18	13.8 ± 4.1	[41]
Ti-25Nb-3Zr-3Mo-2Sn	SLM	Prealloyed	β	202-230	Tensile	-	592 ± 21	716 ± 14	37 ± 5.0	[26]
Ti-13Nb-13Zr	SLM	Prealloyed	α'/β	429-479	Tensile	65	794 ± 15	996 ± 13	5 ± 0.3	[79]

Fig. 10. Backscattered SEM deformation microstructures of polished surface for (a) as-SLMed Ti-35Nb and (b) heat-treated counterpart after tensile failure. Insets are captured at high magnification.

Fig. 11. SEM microstructures of fracture surfaces at the longitudinal section (side view from fracture) after tensile tests: (a)-(c) as-SLMed Ti-35Nb sample, and (d)-(f) heat-treated counterpart. “GBs” means grain boundaries.

Fig. 12. SEM microstructures of fracture surfaces at the cross section (top view from fracture) after tensile failure: (a)-(c) as-SLMed Ti-35Nb sample, and (d)-(f) heat-treated counterpart. “GBs” means the grain boundaries.

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