Solid-state additive manufacturing and repairing by cold spraying: A review

doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2017.09.015

Abstract

Abstract:

High-performance metal additive manufacturing (AM) has been extensively investigated in recent years because of its unique advantages over traditional manufacturing processes. AM has been applied to form complex components of Ti, Fe or Ni alloys. However, for other nonferrous alloys such as Al alloys, Mg alloys and Cu alloys, AM may not be appropriate because of its melting nature during processing by laser, electron beam, and/or arc. Cold spraying (CS) has been widely accepted as a promising solid-state coating technique in last decade for its mass production of high-quality metals and alloys, and/or metal matrix composites coatings. It is now recognized as a useful and powerful tool for AM, but the related research work has just started. This review summarized the literature on the state-of-the-art and problems for CS as an AM and repairing technique.

Key words: Cold spraying, Additive manufacturing, Repairing, Strength, Ductility

Wenya Li, Kang Yang, Shuo Yin, Xiawei Yang, Yaxin Xu, Rocco Lupoi. Solid-state additive manufacturing and repairing by cold spraying: A review[J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2018, 34(3): 440-457.

Figures/Tables 40

Fig. 1. Additive manufacturing (AM) in a broad sense. Noting that the inner part shows the AM processes in a narrow sense.

Fig. 2. A gear made by cold spraying [7].

Fig. 3. Publications of cold spraying per year.

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the bonding process of cold-sprayed particles accompanying with the breaking-up and extruding of surface oxide films and the formation of jetting [24].

Table 1 Names of AM processes described in the ASTM F2793-12A standard [40].

AM processes	Description in ASTM F2793-12A standard
Material Extrusion	Material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice
Material Jetting	Droplets of build material are selectively deposited
Binder Jetting	A liquid bonding agent is selectively deposited to join powder materials
Sheet Lamination	Material sheets are bonded to form an object
Vat Photopolymerisation	Liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively cured by light-activated polymerisation
Powder Bed Fusion	Thermal energy selectively fuses regions of a powder bed
Directed Energy Deposition	Focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as the material is deposited
Cold Spraying	Powdered material is propelled at a substrate at a sufficiently high velocity to cause adhesion and material build-up

Fig. 5. A CSed steel bracket, first cold sprayed onto a substrate, then released and machined to the required shape [41].

Fig. 6. Example of an additively manufactured part with Cu and tool steel with cooling channel-drawing (left) and real part (right) [9].

Fig. 7. Overview of a typical fin array [42].

Fig. 8. Large rotation target by cold spraying [46].

Fig. 9. EBSD maps and inverse pole figures of the cold-sprayed Cu bulks (a) before and (b) after heat treatment. Noting that the figure in bottom-right corner of (a) shows the corresponding ‘Band Contrast’ [15].

Fig. 10. Average tensile strengths of the as-sprayed and annealed Cu deposits [15].

Fig. 11. Tensile properties of cold-sprayed Cu [48].

Table 2 Properties of Cu alloys deposits in the as-sprayed conditions [45].

Copper alloys (wt%)	Oxygen content (ppm)	Yield strength (MPa)	Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)	Elongation (%)	Electrical conductivity (% IACS)
Pure copper	<200	306 ± 10	320 ± 5	3.0 ± 0.5	96.9 ± 0.5
Cu-0.1Ag	<200	438 ± 10	466 ± 5	4.04 ± 0.5	95.4 ± 0.5
Cu-5.7Ag	<200	643 ± 10	701 ± 5	1.25 ± 0.5	74.3 ± 0.5
Cu-23.7Ag	<200	646 ± 10	646 ± 5	0 ± 0.5	62.4 ± 0.5
Cu-0.1Ag-0.1Zr	<200	442 ± 10	483 ± 5	7.03 ± 0.5	87.8 ± 0.5
Cu-3Ag-0.5Zr	<200	576 ± 10	576 ± 5	0 ± 0.5	64.4 ± 0.5

Fig. 12. Ultimate tensile strength versus heat treating temperature for cold-sprayed copper alloys (full symbol for binary alloys Cu-0.1Ag (?), Cu-5.7Ag and () Cu-23.7Ag () and open symbol for ternary alloys Cu-0.1Ag-0.1Zr (□) Cu-3Ag-0.5Zr (Δ)) [49].

Fig. 13. Cold spraying manufacturing of Cu flange [46].

Fig. 14. Typical SEM microstructure of as-sprayed Ti (a, b) and Ti-6Al-4V (c, d) coating in the etched state [33].

Fig. 15. (a) Tensile stress-strain curves for cold spraying fabricated commercial pure Ti before and after heat treatment, and corresponding microstructure for (b) as-sprayed and (c) heat-treated deposits [50].

Fig. 16. Cross-section views of Ti-6Al-4V coatings sprayed with helium and nitrogen [51].

Fig. 17. Typical stress-strain curves for Ti-6Al-4V substrate, helium-sprayed Ti-6Al-4V coatings (as-sprayed and annealed at 600 °C for 2 h), and nitrogen-sprayed Ti-6Al-4V coatings (as-sprayed and annealed at 1000 °C for 4 h) [51].

Fig. 18. Cross sectional microstructures of the (a) Ti and (b) Ti-6Al-4V coatings deposited with pure powder and powder mixtures with different proportions of the shot peening particles [53].

Fig. 19. Fragments of bimetal Ti-6Al-4V/Al and Ti/Cu plates fabricated by cold spraying and machined milling after spraying [55].

Fig. 20. (a) Three sheathed thermocouples embedded within a Ti part and (b) a Ti hemisphere formed by a mould tool [55].

Fig. 21. Typical cross-section of the CSed Al deposit [26].

Fig. 22. Typical microstructure of Al7075 deposit [34].

Fig. 23. Ultimate tensile strength (a) and elongation to fracture (b) of microtensile specimens of the CSed Al7075 deposits in the as-deposited and different heat-treatment conditions. The tensile strength and elongation of bulk Al7075 substrate has also been added for comparison [56].

Fig. 24. Cross-sectional SEM micrographs and tensile properties of cold-sprayed 304L stainless steel [59].

Fig. 25. Ultimate strength and fracture elongation of cold-sprayed and annealed 304L at different temperatures [61].

Fig. 26. Measured displacement of annealed cold-sprayed and conventional (bulk) 316L stainless steel with cyclic loading [60].

Fig. 27. Optical micrograph of (a) as-sprayed, (b) sintered Inconel 718 (1250 °C × 60 min), (c) flexural strength and strain results for the sintered CS samples [62].

Fig. 28. Tensile test results and deposit porosity for as-sprayed and heat-treated Inconel 718 using nitrogen and helium as the propelling gas [64].

Table 3 Tensile properties of representative cold-sprayed deposits.

Material	Gas	As-sprayed		Heat-treated		Reference
		Tensile strength (MPa)	Elongation (%)	Tensile strength (MPa)	Elongation (%)
Cu	Air	125	-	168	-	Authors
	N₂	295	0.35	220	34	[48]
	He	300	3	-	-	[49]
Cu-Ag-Zr	He	442	7.03	500	8	[49]
Cu-Ag	He	438	4.04	280	48	[49]
Ti	He	800	0.8	600	13.8	[50]
Ti-6Al-4V	N₂	150	1.5	460	5.5	[51]
Ti-6Al-4V	He	480	3	765	6	[51]
Al7075	He	415	3.2	560	5.6	[56]
Al6061	He	340	3	200	17	[8]
304L	N₂	70	0	360	3.5	[61]
304L	He	530	7.5	420	22	[59]
In718	N₂	240	0.2	570	2.4	[64]
In718	He	650	1	800	33	[64]

Fig. 29. S-N curves obtained from fatigue tests [20].

Fig. 30. Fatigue life results of cold sprayed Al on Al2024 specimens at stress level of (a) 180 MPa and (b) 210 MPa [29].

Fig. 31. Fatigue strength of cold sprayed Al6082 on Al6082 specimens [67]. (AR: As received, CS: Cold sprayed, SP + CS: Shot peening followed by cold spraying, SSP + CS: Severe shot peening followed by cold spraying, CS + SP: Cold spraying followed by shot peening, CS + SSP: Cold spraying followed by severe shot peening.).

Fig. 32. Mean number of cycles prior to failure as a function of the alternating stress obtained from the bending fatigue tests of the bare, alclad, and cold sprayed Al-Co-Ce coating on Al2024-T3 specimens [68].

Fig. 33. Fatigue test results of cold sprayed Ti-6Al-4V on Ti specimens. “Delaminated set” consisted of plasma and cold-sprayed specimens which delaminated spontaneously during the start of fatigue testing [69].

Fig. 34. Field repairing of corrosion surface damage by portable cold spraying [71].

Fig. 35. Repairing of an Al component in a utility engine for a private jet: (a) before with extensive corrosion damage, (b) as-sprayed with aluminum, (c) as-machined and (d) finished part [72].

Fig. 36. (a) Wear rates of repaired specimen and original Al6061-T6, and (b) Comparison of fabricated channels (top view) and cross sections of polystyrol parts made by injection molding [74].

Fig. 37. (a) Typical stress-strain curves and (b) ultimate tensile strength of as-sprayed and friction-stirred coating [80].

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